This paper presents the challenge of finding ways to improve the academic achievement of a sixteen-year-old African American student in a special education program at a high school in northern Virginia. This student had moved to Virginia from New York City approximately three years before; his academic achievement had been consistently poor in the MR (mild mentally retarded) programs in Virginia schools. Teachers consistently stated that they believed the student was more capable than he demonstrated in his classwork. Attempts by teachers, past and present, to involve the student's parent and family in the educational process had failed. The student's attendance was poor, homework was not done, and the usual behavior plans and discipline referrals for minor rule infractions had no positive effect on achievement. Perhaps school just was not a priority for this student. Perhaps some undiscovered problem was interfering with his achievement. Or, perhaps the right program and services which would assist this student in achieving had not been provided. The Cultural Inquiry Process (Jacob, 1995) was utilized to learn about the student and his family, and the process of MAPS and Transition Plans (O'Brien & Forest, 1989) was utilized to involve the student and his family in the educational process.

Jimmy D. (all proper names are pseudonyms) would be an easy student to ignore. He didn't make a lot of trouble, but he wasn't achieving either. Jimmy didn't talk much except to tease other students occasionally, and he never volunteered an answer in class. He had a habit of not completing homework assignments, and he was failing most of his courses in the MR (mild mentally retarded) program at a high school in northern Virginia. Neither encouragement nor correction by teachers had much effect on his level of achievement. He didn't often meet the gaze of teachers and he seemed to be somewhat of a loner in school. Jimmy didn't present major behavior problems in school; teachers wondered if he didn't take school seriously or wasn't invested in the educational process.

Jimmy's attendance was poor; he often missed Mondays or Fridays, and sometimes both days. Missed work was not made up. Sometimes, Jimmy's personal hygiene was poor; he might wear the same shirt to school for four days in a row, with Monday's pizza stains still visible on Thursday. At times he needed a shave, shower, and some deodorant.

Attempts to communicate with Jimmy's mother, Janice, by sending notes home, and by mailing letters home, were unsuccessful over a 2 + year period. Jimmy and his mother did not have a telephone. She has not attended his yearly IEP (Individual Educational Plan) meeting, nor has she attended any parent-teacher nights or back-to-school meetings. Janice did sign the IEP each year when it was sent home.

From conversations with Jimmy over the past one and a half years as his study manager, I have learned the following:

• Jimmy and Janice moved to Virginia 2+ years ago from New York City. They had lived in a "ghetto in the Bronx" where drugs and gangs were everywhere. They moved here to be near Jimmy's aunt and grandparents.
• Janice doesn't drive and doesn't own a car. They rely on the aunt and grandmother for transportation, as well as taking the bus.
• Jimmy and Janice moved to a nicer apartment closer to school and the grandparents' apartment during the summer of 1997. The still have no telephone.
• Janice works 50-60 hours per week at a fast food restaurant.
• Jimmy is an only child. He sometimes misses New York City where he says there were more things to do and places to go. He doesn't miss the schools in New York City, where he says the "teachers didn't care if I came to school or did any work at all."

In order to begin the Cultural Inquiry Process (Jacob) for this student, I needed to learn the following:

• What Janice knows about the educational process in Virginia, particularly the special education process, as it relates to Jimmy.
• What Janice expects from the school for Jimmy.
• What she wants for her son in his future after he completes his education.
• Strengths in the mother/child relationship and extended family that could be built upon to help Jimmy achieve in school.
• Janice's own educational background and feelings toward school, as it may relate to her dealings with school for her son.

Using the Cultural Inquiry Process, the major puzzlements identified and addressed in this project include:

• I don't understand Jimmy's level of achievement in school.
• I don't understand the level of involvement of Jimmy's mother in his educational program.

It has been my observation, based on more than 25 years in social work and education, that students whose parents are involved in their education tend to achieve more. Therefore, I believe the two major puzzlements outlined above should be considered together. In order to find out, I considered the following cultural questions.

1. Might Janice's work schedule, lack of transportation and lack of a telephone be influencing her level of involvement in Jimmy's educational program?
2. Might Janice's own educational achievement and Jimmy's experiences in the New York City School System be influencing her level of involvement in Jimmy's educational program, and Jimmy's level of achievement in school?
3. Might cultural identities and the meaning of school and school success contribute to Janice's level of involvement and Jimmy's level of achievement in school?
4. Might the culture of the school environment be contributing to Jimmy's level of achievement and Janice's level of involvement? [CIP Question 3.2]
5. Might variations in the meaning of disability be contributing to Jimmy's level of achievement and Janice's level of involvement?
6. Might conflicting styles of communication be contributing to Janice's level of involvement in Jimmy's program?

In order to address the cultural questions and plan interventions, I began the process of gathering information. This involved numerous conversations with the student over a four month period, two meetings with Janice at her place of employment, and a home visit with Jimmy to his grandmother's apartment. This process helped forge a bond between Jimmy, his family, and me, and helped me immensely in planning interventions.

I let Jimmy know that I would be visiting his mother at her place of employment, and that I was doing this just to meet her and talk with her a little bit about how things were going for him at school. I made sure that he understood that I would tell her both the good and the bad about how he was doing.

Meeting # 1: Nov. 10, 1997

Although I had never met Janice D., I knew instantly who she was because Jimmy had described her to me as a "big woman with frizzy hair and tired eyes." She is quite a large woman who limps and doesn't move easily. I first introduced myself and waited for the restaurant to slow down a little so we could talk. At first, Janice was a little worried that I was coming to see her because Jimmy was "in trouble in school," but I reassured her that wasn't my reason for coming to see her. We did talk about some problem issues, such as Jimmy not doing his English homework. Janice agreed that he could stay after school to finish his homework with me if needed.

Janice told me that, although her work hours are stressful, she is happy to be in Virginia because she has family here. Jimmy has more freedom here because there are fewer gangs and less street violence than in New York. Sometimes, in New York City, Jimmy couldn't play outside because of all the shootings and drug dealers around.

Janice and Jimmy have a really close relationship, and Janice admitted that last year Jimmy took off too many Mondays & Fridays to be with her at her job at the mail. She agreed to discourage this so Jimmy could do better in school.

I let Janice know that I had made it my "mission" this year that we find a way for Jimmy to be successful in school, so that he can develop his skills and find a good job when he graduates from high school. Janice is very pleased with the work I am doing with Jimmy, and my commitment to his success in school. She had tears in her eyes and insisted on introducing me to all her co-workers at the restaurant as "my son's wonderful teacher." I thanked her for the praise, and said I'd stop back to see her again in a few weeks to let her know how things were going.

Meeting #2: Just Before Thanksgiving, 1997

My next visit to see Janice at the fast food restaurant where she worked occurred about two weeks later. Janice was on her dinner break, so we got a chance to talk for awhile. We talked a lot about what life was like for Janice and Jimmy when they lived in New York City. Janice said that New York will always be home for her and Jimmy, but that she knew she had to leave when she learned that a neighborhood boy was trying to recruit Jimmy to sell drugs-- and Jimmy was 12 at the time! She called her relatives in Virginia and moved shortly after that. She says she has never looked back, and that she thinks the opportunities for Jimmy are much better here.

I asked Janice what school had been like for Jimmy in New York and how she dealt with the school. She said basically what Jimmy had said to me previously: that no one in the school tried to communicate with her about Jimmy, and that she had no idea where she should go or whom she should ask what was going on in Jimmy's program and how he could get more help. She said it was often dangerous for Jimmy to go to school, because of the gangs and violence in the neighborhood, so that going to school was not a priority for Jimmy, especially during the last year they lived in New York. Janice expressed relief and happiness that school was finally"working" for Jimmy, and that she could phone me if she had any questions or concerns about how Jimmy was doing in school.

There is no mention of a father in the educational files for Jimmy, and I wanted to know what this might mean in Jimmy's life. I asked Janice if Jimmy had much contact with other family members while they lived in New York, and if there were any good male role models in his life. Janice said that she had a brother in New York; he used to take Jimmy to see the New York Yankees play once in awhile. She volunteered that Jimmy had never had a relationship with his father and hadn't seen him in years. She thinks his father is in prison; anyway, she hasn't received any child support in many years.

Janice does receive SSI (Supplemental Security Income-a social security program for people with disabilities) for Jimmy because of his low IQ. I talked with Janice a little about how Jimmy's part-time job can affect his SSI, and asked her what she thought about Jimmy's strengths and weaknesses. Janice sees Jimmy as a good-hearted child who keeps his feelings to himself and has had to learn to get by on his own. She says that sometimes he is lazy; this would explain the unfinished English assignments and wearing the same shirt to school for days without changing, even though he has a decent wardrobe. She said she had been happy to receive my weekly written evaluations of Jimmy's performance in school and at the job site; this was how she learned about Jimmy's personal hygiene problems. She explained that she often works until the restaurant closes, and is asleep when Jimmy leaves for school in the morning. She hadn't been able to monitor showers, shaves, and clothing choices, but she has made a point to become more involved and this problem has disappeared lately.

We needed to set up a regular method of home-school communication, so I asked Janice what would work best for her. She said that it would be best if I phoned her mother, Cora, who lives nearby for any issue about Jimmy. Cora will always give her a message, even if Jimmy "forgets" to bring home notes, evaluations, and report cards sometimes. I also discussed with Janice the MAPS process (O'Brien & Forest, 1989) I wanted to do with Jimmy, and she said she'd be glad to get together with me at Cora's apartment for this sometime. When I got ready to leave, Janice gave me such a big hug that she nearly crushed me!

Meeting # 3: Cora's Apartment, 12/18/97

Jimmy and I arrived at Cora's apartment right after school let out at 2 p.m. I think Jimmy was a little nervous about this visit, because he talked even less than usual and was very attentive to the conversation around him. Report cards had come out that day, and I had made a photocopy of Jimmy's report card to show Cora and Janice, just in case Jimmy had "forgotten" to bring the original. I purposely made a point of saying how pleased I was that Jimmy had brought up his English grade from an F to a C in just four and a half weeks. Both Cora and Janice expressed pleasure, too, and that was the first time Jimmy smiled during the visit.

Cora and her husband were so pleased that I had taken the time to come and meet with them, and they insisted on serving me Christmas cookies and a cold drink almost the moment I arrived. They talked at length about their relationship with Jimmy, and how glad they were that he and Janice had moved nearer to them this summer. Jimmy blushed and looked at the floor in embarrassment several times while his grandmother praised him and encouraged him to do his best in school. Cora asked if the teasing problem I had told her about had improved, and I reported that it had. She admonished Jimmy that, when he feels like teasing another student, he should "think about what your grandmother wants you to do, and then behave." Jimmy acted in a very respectful manner during the entire visit to his grandmother's apartment.

I told the family about the MAPS Process (O'Brien & Forest, 1989) and how I have used it in the past to help students, families and educators focus on what is most important for an individual student as they look toward transition from high school to adult life. MAPS doesn't take the place of an IEP meeting, which is required by law. While the IEP tends to focus on deficits and weaknesses, MAPS tends to focus on the student's strengths and abilities and to build on these. Everyone agreed this sounded like a good idea, so we proceeded to set up roles and tasks.

Information about the MAPS process is in the appendix of this report. I will comment here on some of the findings, particularly the surprises.

Regarding Jimmy's History, I learned that he had been born prematurely and weighed less than 5 lbs. at birth. I saw baby pictures of a thin infant in an incubator. He had long, skinny legs, and it was hard to believe that could have been the same person who is now 5'7"and weighs about 180 lbs! The family talked about how afraid they were they were going to lose Jimmy at birth, and how they all rallied around to help take care of him. This seemed to have a powerful impact on Jimmy, as he started sharing more after this part of the MAPS was completed.

Under the Dreams area, Jimmy had a lot to share about wanting to travel, wanting to get married someday and be a good father, wanting to drive a truck, and wanting to buy a nice house for his mother. Janice stated emphatically that her dream was that Jimmy should complete his education, find a good job and have a good, law-abiding life.

The Fears area of MAPS was packed with really scary what-if's. Janice wondered what would've happened if they hadn't left New York, and Cora worried that Jimmy would get in with a bad crowd here. Janice summed it up with her statement, "I don't want no drug dealer for a son."

In the Who Are You area, Jimmy stated that he is quiet, moody and sometimes lazy. He admitted that he has a habit of lying that he is trying to break. Janice talked about his mechanical abilities, strong work ethic, and devotion to friends and relatives.

In the Needs area, the adults stressed Jimmy's need to complete his education, get all the vocational training possible, and work hard. Jimmy talked about specifics like a drivers license, and possibly a CDL license so he could drive a truck. I brought up the need for money management, so Jimmy wouldn't spend his hard-earned money on "junk he doesn't need" (Jimmy's own words).

The MAPS process helped to answer some of the questions of the Cultural Inquiry Process, and also helped form a real team to work on Jimmy's behalf. I had been trying some interventions since September, but after the MAPS was completed, I had much more of an idea where to focus my efforts.

Jimmy's relationship with me changed over the course of the Fall semester. When school started, he exhibited the same old expectations of failure attitude about school. I let him know early and often that I had made his success my "mission" this year. I think he wasn't sure how to interpret this statement at first.

The first intervention tried was to include Jimmy in the new group of students who went out to work with me every week at a job site. First, we worked at a local pizza restaurant, and I noticed that Jimmy did an excellent job unloading supplies from a truck and putting them away. He worked well with and without direct supervision. Later, Jimmy accompanied me to a local grocery store, and did an equally good job at bagging, stocking shelves, cleaning, and collecting carts. He was always polite with customers and worked well with the staff at each job site. Jimmy enjoyed getting away from the school environment for a few hours each week, and I believe he enjoyed feeling competent in the work environment.

When I helped Jimmy find a real job, fill out the application, told him how to dress and act at the interview, accompanied him to the interview- - and he got the job! - - then, I think he started to believe that I meant what I said about making his success my "mission." When I called his supervisor and had his work hours cut because he had skipped school one day, he began to pay attention to how his school behavior affected other areas of his life. When I visited his mother and then his grandmother, and completed the MAPS process with the family, he began to believe there was a real team working on his behalf.

Jimmy has shown increased self-esteem and improved academic achievement over the course of one semester. His attendance has improved markedly; he has missed only three days of school this semester, compared to fourteen over the same period last year. He has been tardy to class three times so far this year; last year he was tardy on nearly a daily basis. He has skipped class only once all semester; he admitted it to me and promised he would never do it again. There have been no discipline referrals this year; last year he had six during the same time period and was not allowed to attend any extra-curricular activities because of the conduct issues. His grades have improved over the course of the semester, and as of the end of the semester, Jimmy was passing all subjects. He even asked me "How could I make that C in English an A?"

Jimmy's appearance and personal hygiene have also improved. He is dressing better, and his clothing is always clean. There is no longer any problem with body odor, unkempt hair or 5 o'clock shadow at 8 in the morning.

In the area of attitude, Jimmy has shown marked improvement. He answers questions, rather than just mumbling. He volunteers to read, something he never did before. He is one of the better readers in the class, something that was not known before because he didn't participate much last year. He still teases several other students occasionally, but stops when reminded of his promise to his grandmother. All I have to do is ask "What would Cora say?"

Jimmy has expressed to me that he used to think school was a waste of time, but now he sees that the program has some meaning for his future. He is invested in achieving this semester, because he must pass his current courses to proceed with Drivers Education next semester, and Building Trades next year.

For the first time since I've known him, Jimmy wants to do well, and he has figured out how to succeed. Acting as his guide, advocate, confessor, and job coach has helped me to become a better teacher, and has taught me as much as it has taught Jimmy. I have come to know and appreciate Jimmy as a multi-faceted human being, and count him as a friend. It brought tears to my eyes when he presented me with a Christmas gift that he had bought with money earned at his first real job.

I found the Cultural Inquiry Process useful in helping me to learn more about the student and his family, as well as to look at puzzlements from a variety of perspectives. To answer my puzzlements, I first determined the answers to my cultural questions:

1. Might Janice's work schedule, lack of transportation and lack of a telephone be influencing her level of involvement in Jimmy's educational program?
   
   This did appear to be one aspect of the puzzlement, but I don't believe it was a major one, given that we now have a workable telephone arrangement with the grandmother. Lack of transportation was a reason for Janice not attending the IEP meetings, but we have an arrangement to work around that from now on. I will bring the IEP to her at work before it is signed.
   
   
2. Might Janice's own educational achievement and Jimmy's experiences in the New York City School System be influencing her level of involvement in Jimmy's educational program, and Jimmy's level of achievement in school?
   
   Based on the fact that Janice works at a fast food restaurant, has no car or a telephone, one might assume that she had a low IQ herself. However, I found Janice to be pretty sharp and I came to respect the commitment she had for her only child. It did become clear that their experiences with the New York City School System had had a profound, negative effect on Jimmy's level of achievement and Janice's feeling of hopelessness about school for her son. Janice just did not know where to begin to advocate for her son in the education system, and she had no real understanding of the special education process in Virginia or anywhere else. Janice had despaired of expecting anything for Jimmy from the educational process when they moved to Virginia (Kotlowitz, 1991).
   
   
3. Might cultural identities and the meaning of school and school success contribute to Janice's level of involvement and Jimmy's level of achievement in school?
   
   Jimmy and his family are African Americans. His grandfather is a retired carpenter. His grandmother is a retired clerk-typist. The grandparents had a nice, neat, well-furnished apartment in a new apartment complex. This family had obviously worked very hard to achieve their standard of living. The grandparents expressed immediate and unqualified support for the value of education. Janice did also, but I also felt that she had been worn down by the negatives in their New York City situation and that this had contributed to her lack of involvement. This left Jimmy in a kind of vacuum, he continued to exhibit the same behaviors in Virginia that he had learned in New York: Why bother trying, when no one expects anything anyway (Delpit, 1995)?
   
   
4. Might the culture of the school environment be contributing to Jimmy's level of achievement and Janice's level of involvement?
   
   I think the culture of the school environment did contribute to Jimmy's level of achievement. The standard behavior management model used in the high school: warnings, discipline referrals, suspensions, etc., had absolutely no effect on Jimmy last year. He wasn't invested in school in the first place, because he hadn't learned that school could make a difference in his life, so why should he care if he got suspended? He could just spend some extra time at the mall with his mother. Receiving notices of detentions, suspensions, etc., just increased Janice's feelings of hopelessness about school for her son (MacLeod, 1995).
   
   
5. Might variations in the meaning of disability be contributing to Jimmy's level of achievement and Janice's level of involvement?
   
   No one in the family expressed any concerns about Jimmy being in special education at any time during our meetings. They all wanted Jimmy to accomplish as much as he was capable of in school, and the label did not seem to be a problem for them. I did note that Jimmy's uncle, who was present for the MAPS meeting at the grandparents' apartment, spoke and acted as though he might be mentally retarded himself. It is quite possible that this family was accustomed to working through difficulties, and Jimmy's special education label was not terribly important in the scheme of things. In all our many discussions over the course of this year, Jimmy has never once made a negative comment about being in special ed, although many other students make such comments (Obiakor, 1992).
   
   
6. Might conflicting styles of communication be contributing to Janice's level of involvement in Jimmy's program?
   
   I'm not sure if the issue is conflicting styles of communication. At the outset of this project, Janice did not believe she could communicate with the school at all, because of their New York City experiences. I do find that the family doesn't seem to initiate communication; they don't call just to see how things are going. I make the initial contact, but they are always happy to hear of Jimmy's progress, and willing to help with any problems (Shipler, 1997).
   

I now understand that Jimmy's low academic achievement was related to his experiences in New York City Schools and the sense of hopelessness he and Janice learned there in relation to education. Janice's lack of involvement in Jimmy's education came from her experiences with New York City Schools, as well, together with fatigue from the long work hours necessary to support herself and her son. Cultural differences were actually low on the list of puzzlements, as Janice and the entire family expressed positive feelings for Jimmy's educational achievement and appropriate behavior at school. This had a powerful effect on Jimmy's self-esteem and academic achievement.

In conclusion, found the Cultural Inquiry Process, paired with the MAPS Process, to be useful in understanding students and their family environment, and helpful in planning for the student's future. I believe Jimmy's family found it useful, and Jimmy did, as well, as evidenced by his marked improvement during one school term. I am grateful to have had the opportunity to complete this process.

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Barker, N.C. (1994). The self and the Black male: Implications for school and society. In F. E. Obiakor & S. W. Stile (Eds.), Self-concepts of exceptional learners: Current perspectives for educators (rev. printing). Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt.

Canfield, J., & Wells, H.C. (1994). 100 ways to enhance self-concept in the classroom. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.

Delpit, L (1995). Other people's children: Cultural conflict in the class-room. NY: The New Press.

Erickson, F. (1993). Transformation and school success: The politics of educational achievement. In E. Jacob & C. Jordan (Eds.), Minority education: Anthropological perspectives (pp. 27-51). Norwood, NJ: Ablex Publishing Co.

Fordham, S., & Ogbu, J. U. (1986). Black students' school success: Coping With the burden of "Acting White." The Urban Review, 18, 1-31.

Henry, W. (1990, April 9). Beyond the melting pot. Time, 28-31.

Kotlowitz, A. (1991). There Are no children here: The story of two boys growing up in the other America. NY: Doubleday.

MacLeod, J. (1995). Ain't no makin' it. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

Obiakor, F. E. (1992, October/November). Self-concept of African American students: An operational model for special education. Exceptional Children, 59, 160-167.

Obiakor, F. E, & Stile, S. W. (1994). Self-concepts of exceptional learners: Current perspectives for educators (rev. printing). Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt.

O'Brien, J. & Forest, M., with Snow, J. & Hasbury, D. (1989). Action for inclusion. Toronto, Canada: Frontier College Press.

Ogbu, J. U. (1978). Minority education and caste: The American system in cross-cultural perspective. New York: Academic Press.

Osborne, B.A. (1996). Practice into theory into Practice: Culturally relevant pedagogy for students we have marginalized and normalized. Anthropology & Education Quarterly, 27 (3): 285-314.

Osborne, R. E. (1996). Self: An eclectic approach. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.

Powell-Hobson, D., & Hobson, D.S. (1992). Different and wonderful: Raising Black children in a race-conscious society. New York: Simon & Schuster.

Shipler, D. (1997). A country of strangers: Blacks and Whites in America. New York: Alfred J. Knopf.

Ground Rules for a MAP

1. The student will have the first opportunity to respond at each step of the MAP, followed by parents and other family members. Afterwards, other team members are free to respond in any order.
   
2. All team members' ideas are important and will be written down. Team members should feel comfortable in asking the recorder to add or change wording, or delete information they decide should not be recorded publicly.
   
3. Team members have a right to "Pass" on a specific question or stop if they begin to feel uncomfortable about the information being discussed.
   
4. If team members want to say anything negative, it should be said in the most positive way possible. MAPS are meant to be built on strengths.
   
5. Team members will wait until the final stages of the MAP to decide which ideas are the best or most important. MAPS should be fun, creative and full of a variety of ideas. Some ideas may appear to be in conflict with one another, but this is OK!

1. HISTORY--Things to think about:

• How would you describe your life up to now? You may want to include school and family highlights, important people and events, etc.

2. DREAMS--Things to think about:

• What dreams and hopes do you have for your future?
• What would you like to accomplish in the coming year? 5 years from now? 10 years from now?
• What dreams do you have for your: work? living situation? activities in your community? education and/or job training?

3. FEARS--Things to think about:

• What do you not want to have happen in your life?
• What concerns you most about your future?
• What barriers do you face in making your dreams possible?

4. WHO ARE YOU?--Describe yourself in as many ways as possible:

• What words do you use to describe yourself?
• What are your strengths, gifts, talents, likes, dislikes, skills, personal qualities, favorite activities and friends?

5. NEEDS--Things to think about:

• Take a look at the dreams you have identified for yourself and think about who you are.
• What is needed to make these dreams come true?
• What would improve your life?
• What steps can you take make changes in your life?
• What can others do to support you in meeting your needs?

1. Use information from the MAP to complete a "quadrant:"

2. Review each quadrant to develop (1) goal statements and (2) ideas for activities

3. For each activity, make plans that show how the activity will be carried out, who will do it, when it will be done, and how it will be measured. Include this information in the IEP goals and objectives.

4. Implement the plan

5. Follow-up and evaluate the plan: try another MAP!