My current teaching assignment is second grade at Mill Creek Elementary School which is located in a suburb of a large metropolitan area.  The school pulls students from three separate communities and serves a vastly diverse population. Forty-eight countries and 27 languages are represented in the total of 528 students.  The grade range of Mill Creek Elementary is Head Start through sixth. 

The children come from homes that represent a wide gamut of socioeconomic backgrounds.  Their housing ranges from large single-family dwellings to small apartments in rent subsidized complexes.  Approximately one third of the children live in low-income housing, many of which contain extended family environments.  Forty-four percent of the students are on a program that provides free or reduced lunches.  Thirty-five percent of the children receive either pullout or inclusion services from the English for Speakers of Other Languages (ESOL) teachers. There is a thirty-two percent mobility rate that lends further instability to the children’s academic endeavors.

My current class consists of twenty-two students. The ages of the students range from seven to nine.  The class is unevenly divided with twelve boys and ten girls.  The students in the class closely represent the overall composition of Mill Creek Elementary.  The students represent thirteen different countries of origin, and speak ten languages other than English.  English language literacy proficiency is varied.  There are a total of nine students qualifying for ESOL support with two of the students being non-English speakers. Fourteen of the students’ home communication is in a language other than English.

My classroom follows an inclusion model.  Other staff members and instructional assistants have been assigned to the class on both a push-in and pullout basis to adequately serve the various needs of the children.  There is on-going collaboration among the teachers involved with the children.  The inclusion team includes an ESOL teacher and a reading specialist who work with second language learners and struggling readers on a regular basis.

Academically the class is a very diverse group of children.  Eleven of the students entered second grade reading and writing below grade level.  The spread of abilities among the students is significant.  Of the remaining ten students, seven are being considered for placement in the G/T (gifted and talented) Center.

My career extends over twenty-two years and has offered me varied experiences in the field of education.  As a classroom teacher I worked for DoDD’s (Department of Defense Dependent Schools) for seven years.  Another five years was spent teaching at an international school in the Czech Republic. Due to my numerous assignments overseas, I have had the opportunity to work with children of varying cultures in a single learning environment.  This prepared me well for the diversity of my current teaching assignment.  

Due to the diverse nature of the students, flexible grouping is used routinely within the classroom in all areas of the curriculum. This grouping and open ended activity are used to differentiate instruction to meet the needs of all the learners in the classroom.  The students are encouraged and given the time to work in cooperative groups.  The primary focus is on the strengths that each student brings to the classroom climate. 

My goal is to provide a threat-free environment so that each student feels comfortable and successful.  Communication is encouraged among the students.  I feel that the children learn from each other as well as from the teachers.  Center activities and lessons are designed to meet the needs of each student.  With open ended activities the students are able to work at their current level.  Competition is minimized.  Enrichment activities are provided for the students who enjoy an extra challenge.  Hands-on and visual activities support students not yet proficient in the English language.

This year, as with each new school year, I looked forward to meeting the new group of children who would be mine for their second grade experience.  My years in teaching have taught me that each class will be different.  Not only are the individual children different year after year but the class as a whole takes on a distinct personality.   Within that group I am guaranteed of one or more children who gain my attention quickly.  This year was no exception.

José (all names are pseudonyms) appeared at my door on the first day of school with a huge smile on his face and nervousness in his laugh.  He seemed eager to begin school and quickly made friends with other Spanish speaking members of the class.  He carried no supplies nor seemed aware that any were needed.  He ran around and chased a fellow student who was eager to participate in the game.  On two occasions José took off outside to the playground and had to be retrieved.  He seemed quite puzzled that he was expected to come inside and remain in the classroom.

After looking at José’s admittance records I discovered that he is nine-year-old Hispanic child who arrived in the United States from El Salvador in August 2003, only days before the beginning of school.  Other than his birthday, which was listed differently on different papers, there was minimal information available on José. After initial screening by the county, José was placed in second grade although his age would have normally placed him in the third grade range of birthdates. This makes him, by several months, the oldest student in the class.

José was average in size for his age.  Although he was a full year older than many of the other students in the class, it was not immediately evident in his appearance.  He was a very attractive young man and seemed to put a lot of effort into his appearance.  He carried himself proudly and was quite well groomed, especially his hair.  I quickly learned the Spanish word for “handsome” as he frequently refered to himself as “guapo.”

Initially it was difficult to determine José’s strengths.  He did not yet read or write Spanish.  There was no indication that he had had much formal education in reading as he did not seem to associate letters and sounds. He did exhibit some knowledge of environmental print.  In math he could not count or recognize numbers to ten in Spanish.  This was another indication that perhaps José had not had much school experience.

According to Ogbu (1992), José and his family would be considered “voluntary immigrants.”  Due to the encouragement of other family members after her husband’s death, José’s mother brought her children to the United States in hopes of removing them from their economic and social situation in El Salvador.  During the first meeting José’s mother told the interpreter that she hoped that her children would have a better life and make better choices than those of her family still living in her country.

José lived in subsidized housing within walking distance of the school.  He was the youngest of three children and lived with an older sister and brother and their mother.  Their mother worked as a domestic, making less than minimum wage. 

José’s father was killed in El Salvador prior to the family’s arrival in the United States.  According to José’s mother, her husband was shot and killed while participating in a drug deal that went bad.  José was with his father at the time that he was shot.  The death of the father led to the further decline of the family’s socioeconomic status in El Salvador, as he was the sole provider in the family. 

Although José’s mother claimed that her husband was a bad role model for their children, he did provide money for food and shelter.  In order to leave El Salvador she hired the services of a “coyote.”  She explained that a “coyote” was a person who, for a price, helped people get over the border into the United States.  She recited several stories about their journey, which was an unpleasant experience for the family.

It became evident throughout the conversation José’s mother that at the age of nine, he has already dealt with many difficulties.  These events may be exerting a strong influence on José’s attitude and behavior at school.  For José and his family, basic survival needs have been difficult to maintain.

At this time José attended school on a regular basis and arrived at school on time each day.  This had not always been the case; in the beginning of the year there were frequent absences and José was listed as tardy seventeen times in the first quarter.  He initially failed to return anything that was sent home.  This included his homework folder or any notes that needed a response.  With the help of the Spanish-speaking liaison, the school managed to get necessary papers signed but José did not contribute to this endeavor.

José worked in a small group with the ESOL (English Speakers of Other Languages) teacher each day for approximately one hour.  In addition he received intermittent help, approximately one and one-half hours a week, in math with a Spanish speaking, Title I teacher.  The remainder of the day was spent in the regular classroom where he was expected and encouraged to participate in the regular planned activities.

Upon his return to the classroom, José expressed little interest in the activities planned for him.  These activities included working on the computer, listening to tapes of stories on a recorder, or working in his picture dictionary.  The picture dictionary was a task that he worked on in the ESOL class each morning so it was an activity with which he was familiar.

My puzzlement concerned José’s behavior in my class.  Although José is described by the ESOL (English Speakers of Other Languages) teachers as being an enthusiastic and serious student who is anxious to learn, I did not observe these behaviors in my class.

José attended the ESOL class immediately upon arrival at school.  He was pulled out for approximately one hour and was accompanied by another child from my class who was also a non-English speaker.  During these sessions José worked either one on one with the teacher or in a group with the other student to learn basic language skills. 

Although José and the other student are included in the literacy center activities of our classroom, he did not transition well into the group.  When he re-entered our classroom, he became disruptive and annoying to the rest of the class.  He scribbled on their papers and grabbed items from their hands at the centers. He laughed and ran in an attempt to get them to chase him.  His friend who attended the ESOL class with him soon joined in and total chaos would erupt. 

The ESOL teacher and I worked together to create jobs that would duplicate what José did in the smaller group in her class.  Although the directions were explained to him in Spanish he failed to make any attempt to complete the tasks in the regular classroom.  However, he expressed a desire to take the assignments with him to his next ESOL session.

During the day there were numerous opportunities for José to participate in cooperative groups. He was assigned to a group with at least one Spanish speaking child so dialogue could take place.  As in other circumstances, José chose to be disruptive and frequently the children in the group requested that he be placed in another group. On numerous occasions, he was observed being the catalyst for hitting and arguing events that took place in his group.

I took several opportunities to observe José in his other classes such as art, physical education, and music.  Interestingly enough, other than in my class, these disruptive behaviors were exhibited only in the art class.  Of course in physical education running and playing are expected.  In music, José sat on the floor in complete silence and seemed totally perplexed by what was going on.  He willingly participated in any movement activities after observing what he should be doing.  However in art, he became disruptive and attempted to damage other children’s work.  During all of these activities José retained a smile and a happy demeanor.  He appeared to be having a good time. 

It had been recommended to me by the counselor and other teachers that I refer José to the Child Study Committee as he appeared to be emotionally disturbed.  I was not yet ready to make that concession.  I felt that it was much too early to judge José’s behavior and perhaps label it as negative.   My experience indicated that a closer look at José’s prior experiences and cultural influences was warranted.  Finding a label for José would not be fair to him or to the class.  I felt that José had a lot to offer to the group and that it was our job to help him find his comfort zone. 

Initially there seemed to be so many pieces to this puzzle named “José” that I did not know where to begin.  Being a veteran educator of over twenty years, I naturally had to look at my beliefs and where I was coming from in both evaluating and dealing with José’s behavior in my classroom (CIP 3.1).  Perhaps my beliefs and expectations of José were influencing my treatment of him.  I needed time to reflect on my own experiences and draw from these before I could make a judgment on José. 

While teaching overseas I worked with children from other cultures whose behaviors were similar to José’s.  In those cases the behavior was considered normal and was directly related to the expectations of the parents.  In their country, formal schooling began later in a child’s life and physical activity and playing were not only allowed but encouraged in the early years.   This behavior often included very active and aggressive play, similar to that which I witnessed in José.  I began to look for a connection.  

Considering that José’s behavior was similar to behavior that I had dealt with in other classroom situations I felt that this type of behavior could somehow be connected to José’s prior school experiences.  This thought led me to consider cultural mismatches that might be occurring between the school culture and the home culture. 

Based on my past experiences with different cultures,  I decided to focus primarily on CIP 3.3.2 which refers to mismatches between a student’s or group’s home culture and the school curriculum.  According to Phelan, Davidson, and Yu (1998), when schools require children to act in ways that are incongruent with what they have learned and experienced at home, problems can arise.

Although I had not entirely abandoned the notion that my beliefs were affecting the situation, I felt that there were many layers of José that needed to be unwrapped before I could fairly and accurately judge his behaviors as negative in relation to his educational pursuits.

With this in mind I formulated the following questions:

• How does José’s prior experience with education influence his behavior in the classroom?
• How do the educational experiences of José’s family influence his behavior in the classroom?
• How does José’s socioeconomic background influence his behavior in the classroom?

To pursue this line of thinking, I knew that it was important to contact José’s mother again.  She was the only one who would be able to accurately report events in José’s life which might be impacting his success at our school.  According to Carger (1997) it is important to involve Latino parents in their children’s education.  Because his mother was a single parent and the role model for her children, I felt that it was important to find out how she felt about her education and her children’s responsibility toward school.

 I initially referred to notes that I had taken during my first conference with José’s mother.  Since José’s mother did not speak any English this conference as well as the subsequent conversations and interviews were conducted through an interpreter.  I attempted to take quick notes during the meetings and then meet with the interpreter to clarify any misunderstanding at a later date. 

José’s mother had initiated the first meeting soon after school began.  She was concerned about José and did not understand the information he was trying to relay to her each afternoon after school.  She also felt that the school should know about José’s background and the difficulties that he had encountered in his past school experiences.  At this time she said that although José claimed to enjoy school, she had a difficult time getting him to come to school each morning.  I felt that this did not justify, but could explain, José’s frequent absences and tardies.

During this conference I learned that although José was enrolled in school in El Salvador, education was not strongly emphasized within the family or by José’s friends.  He lived in a very rural area with minimal living conveniences.  According to his mother, the teachers often would not show up at school. In these situations the students were sent home.  Sometimes the students would go to school only to find the doors locked and the school closed for a few days or a week. 

Attendance at school was not an emphasis in José’s school in El Salvador.  His mother seemed surprised that we were concerned about José not attending school on a regular basis.  At this time the school liaison spent some time explaining the rules and importance of attendance to the parent. 

Holman (1997) claims that it is very important to lessen the intimidation factor for new immigrants.  Removing the language barrier and providing an open avenue of communication is important.  The school liaison arranged to meet with the parent on a regular basis to provide information verbally, rather than in writing. 

In El Salvador José considered school an opportunity to meet with his friends.  If his friends did not go to school José would choose to stay home.  He did not bring assignments home and his mother had no evidence of the work completed in his El Salvadoran school.  José was frequently allowed to accompany his father to his place of employment instead of attending school.  Because the family arrived without any school records, none of José’s work or activities could be verified.

I was curious as to why José was placed in second grade when, according to his birth date he should have been placed in third grade.  I called the district office and they agreed to allow me to see notes taken at the initial interview with José’s mother.  Since there were no academic records produced from El Salvador, and it was determined that there was not functional English spoken at home, school officials felt that they should place him down instead of up with his age peers.  However, his sister, who also had no records, was placed with her proper age group, as was his older brother, a middle school student.  Due to the high number of students who pass through the office, understandably no one was able to clarify any information other than that which was contained in the folder.  It would have been interesting to know why José was singled out to be kept back when all of the children had the same experiences.

After observing José’s behavior in the classroom and wanting more information I requested a second conference with the parent.  In this conference I presented the interpreter with more direct questions which I attempted to make open-ended so that the parent could add information that she thought was important.

During the second conference José’s mother told us that she could neither read nor write Spanish.  She said that she could manage simple addition and subtraction but only enough for daily survival.  She shared that, although José’s father was “very smart man” he did not encourage any of the children to attend school.  He felt that there was no need for formal schooling, especially for the daughter.  The father’s attitude would certainly support José’s behavior and attitude toward attendance at school.  However, it should be mentioned that the older brother was a very dedicated student in El Salvador and has continued that trend this year in the middle school.

During this conference José’s mother seemed to be much more comfortable.  She told us that she had started work and could figure out how to use the money she made to buy food for her family.  She no longer felt that she needed someone to accompany her everywhere.  She was very interested in José’s progress in school and especially learning the English language.  Although he was not attempting to speak English in the class, she told us that he was beginning to use some of the English he was learning to help her shop.  She was very proud.

One of her stated concerns was over what José does at home.  He likes to be outside with his “friends.” However, according to his mother, the friends are several years older than José and are in the process of forming a gang.  She said that he was beginning to ignore her and she felt his friends were exhibiting quite a bit of negative influence over José.  She has solicited the help of the older brother, who does not participate in gang activities, to talk to José, but so far neither of them has had any luck convincing José to avoid gang involvement.

After the second conference with the mother, I decided to interview José himself.  I formulated a few open ended questions.  Since this had to be done through an interpreter, I decided to ask the school liaison to meet alone with José to discuss the questions.  I wanted to make him feel that he was in a conversational mode rather than one of interrogation.  On other occasions José had indicated that he was not only willing to speak freely about himself but welcomed the opportunity.  Since there had been some discipline problems that I had had to address with José I did not want my presence to inhibit José’s responses to the inquiries.  Since I do not speak or understand Spanish I felt that my presence would only deter the flow of conversation.

At this point in my research, I began to focus on CIP question 3.4 (influences on students from outside school.)  I was curious as to the amount of contact and influences his friends were exerting over José’s behavior.  After several unsuccessful follow-up attempts with José to get him to share information concerning his friends and activities outside of school, I decided to abandon further inquiry into this part of his life.  I felt that further pressure concerning his friendship outside of the school might serve to alienate him from me and the rest of the class.  I felt that I needed to gain his trust and build a positive relationship with him if I was to construct any intervention that might be of help.  I did not believe that this was an influence to be ignored, but I decided not to make it a priority at this time.

For the next several weeks my focus remained on the suspected mismatch between school and home.  I felt that José’s prior experiences in an educational environment influenced his current behavior and that he did not have an understanding of what was expected of him in my classroom.  His mother had limited exposure to formal schooling and their socioeconomic status in El Salvador prohibited José from having structured school experiences.

After collecting more data in the form of anecdotal notes, and the interview with José, I began to suspect an additional mismatch between José’s previous school experiences and the cultural climate in the classroom. 

After determining that there was, indeed, an obvious mismatch between José’s home culture and that of the school, I began to track his activities in the classroom.  I felt that to truly understand José and his actions I would need to address classroom behaviors.   This would perhaps refer to an additional Cultural Inquiry Question, CIP 3.3.1, which addresses a mismatch between the student’s interactional style and that of the school. 

I decided not to focus on José’s behavior in classes other than mine. It was unfair to expect the same behaviors from José in my class as in the ESOL class where he worked continually with an adult at his side.  I believed that any student’s behavior would change with the different sizes and dynamics within the groups.

Due to the language barrier and inaccessibility of the family I felt that any impact that I could make would need to be made within the confines of the school, particularly the classroom.  I continued to take notes about José’s behavior in class.  In addition to the ones already mentioned, I noted the following behaviors on a fairly consistent basis:

• Upon entering the room José would approach a particular child and engage him in conversation.
• José would stop at his own desk, choose a book from his book basket, and walk away without sitting down.
• José would choose an alternate place to sit, most often at a table.
• José would cruise the room collecting children from centers and other activities to come work with him.
• José would keep a running dialogue going with the children at the table.

After observing these repeated behaviors I began to realize that perhaps José was constructing his own learning environment.  This added to my puzzlement but I felt that, since it was within the classroom, it was one that I could address with some success.  Additional questions became:

• Was José making an attempt to participate in activities which he felt were expected of him?
• Did José’s desk give him a feeling of confinement that he did not like?
• Was José attempting to build a social group while working?

The student that José approached each day was consistently the young man that I found myself using as an interpreter when I needed to explain something to José.  He was a student with whom José seemed comfortable and went to when he did not understand something.  Although this particular student was not strong academically he was very supportive in helping José acclimate to the new environment at the beginning of school.  Perhaps José saw him as my spokesperson and depended on him for directions.  Since this student did not always have a good grasp of what was going on, perhaps he was not the best partner for José but one with whom José could relate.

Could it be that José was not comfortable sitting at his desk?  Although he was not one of the larger students, the desk did present some confinement as it was in a group with a student on each side of him.  One of the students was able to converse in Spanish but the other was no support with the language.

According to Rothstein-Fisch, Greenfield, and Trumbull (1999), collectivism and individualism are classroom strategies which may influence Hispanic students in school.  They contend that Hispanic students are collectivist learners and often have difficulties with the individualistic culture of American schools. As I observed José more closely I wondered if that was the message he was trying to send by collecting friends with which to work at the table. 

As a result of the collected information I decided to focus my intervention strategies on the two cultural questions that I felt were having the most impact on José’s success in school.  Both of the questions related to mismatches that might be interfering with his progress.  The first mismatch to be addressed was 3.3.2 which related to the mismatch between José’s home culture and that of the school’s. 

The interventions that I decided to focus on were to:

• Talk to José’s brother and solicit his help getting José to take more of an interest in school.
• Offer José’s mother an opportunity to sign up for basic English classes through the school.
• Invite José’s mother into the classroom for several visits in order to give her a glimpse of what the American school is like and what José experiences each day.

During the conferences with José’s mother I learned that although she had limited formal education she believed that education was important.  Although she did not insist that José regularly attend school I felt that this was due to differences in prior experiences with educational systems.  She indicated that she was quite proud of José’s brother who was learning English at a rapid rate and she felt he was going to be successful.  The brother seemed to understand that success in school would contribute to further success in life.  I felt that he might be a good role model for José in the home.

During the second conference José’s mother indicated pride in being able to learn enough English words for her to successfully take the bus to the grocery to purchase needed items.  I hoped that her attendance at this short class for non-English speaking parents would not only boost her confidence but would also provide a catalyst for José to take more of an interest in learning the language.  This language class required no reading or writing ability.

I felt that part of the problem could be solely based on José’s mother’s lack of experience with any education institution, especially one in the United States.  I hoped that by inviting her into the classroom, she would be more aware of school expectations and could help him to meet his responsibilities.

According to Goldberg (2001), parents can be valuable allies who can help promote their children’s academic achievements.  He discovered that despite low levels of formal education Latino parents were willing and able to provide important support for their children’s school success.  Even if they do not speak English the parents are capable of providing important home-based support.  I was counting on this with José’s mother.

Johnson and Protheroe (2003) list factors that are effective in encouraging parents to participate in their children’s education.  Often foreign parents are uncomfortable or unaware of their role in their child’s educational experience.  They are unsure whether they are welcomed at school.  By encouraging José’s mother to come to school to meet with the liaison and visit the classroom I hoped to at least partially remove that barrier.

Another factor that I believed might be relevant to this case was the self-efficacy of the parent.  According to Johnson and Protheroe (2003) this can play a critical role in the adjustment of the student.  Perhaps, due to lack of literacy skills, José’s mother feels unable to help her children do better in school.  She may feel she has little to offer to José and may feel self-conscious about not having the necessary skills to help.  By working with her perhaps we can find ways that she can assist José with his work at home. 

In pursuing the first intervention involving José’s brother, I encountered a very pleasant surprise.  I met a young man who was not only dedicated to learning English but was convinced that he would be a success in life.  He openly discussed his father’s illegal work in El Salvador and his eventual death because of his choices in life.  He told me that he does not intend to remain poor and that one day he will live in a house that his family owns.  When I talked to him about my concerns for José, he eagerly agreed to help with his brother.  He felt that his brother was too interested in playing and not working very hard.  Since the brother had good literacy skills in Spanish and could read a bit of English it was decided that José would take English and Spanish books home and the two brothers would read together each night for twenty minutes.

This intervention had a very positive result. After the first two weeks José asked to take home his journal which contained pictures under which he wrote a word to identify the picture.  According to his brother, José is using the journal to teach his mother English.  I am not yet sure that the effort is enhancing José’s learning but it is an indicator that his interest in school has increased. 

During a phone call to the school liaison José’s mother told her that José has been encouraging her to learn English.  He told her that if she did not learn English that she would not be able to understand what her children were talking about because they would be speaking English.  I asked the liaison to speak with José about this as I felt that it might be more than his mother could handle at this time.  He was responsive to the suggestion that he try to help her in any way he could but not by putting pressure on her.  In addition to reading the words in his journal he is also including her in the work with his brother. José, his brother, and his mother all work together on English several times a week. 

 José’s mother is supposed to begin five weeks of English classes starting in April.  It is yet to be determined as to whether she will actually attend.  Although she shows interest, her work schedule may interfere and she may not be able to keep the commitment. 

José’s mother has set up a regular weekly dialogue with the school liaison.  After her first hour long visit to the class she claimed that she had no idea that so many things could be happening at school at one time.  I could tell that she was overwhelmed on her first and only visit.  Of course the students wanted to show her everything.  Although she has been invited back she has yet to respond.  She is currently working and perhaps is unable to work another visit into her schedule. 

Through these initial interventions I felt that José and I had made some progress in our journey together.  First of all, it made me more aware of the family situation and dynamics.  Although indications are that José’s culture has had some impact on his attitude I feel that many of his behavior issues were based on previous experiences and mismatches with the school culture and expectations.  Getting his brother involved as a role model will hopefully assist further family situations.  Exposing José’s mother to the American school system has helped her to make a connection to the school.  The school liaison has been invaluable as she is also continuing to provide scaffolding for the parent when needed.  She has developed a very comfortable relationship with the family.

After spending a substantial amount of time observing José and recording his behavior I felt that some interventions would be successful if I addressed the mismatch indicated by CIP question 3.3.1.  This question addresses mismatches between the student’s interactional style and that of the classroom. I felt that I would have some success with classroom interventions as I have more power to manipulate them.  I decided that although I was unable to communicate directly with José, it was time to get to know him on a different level.

The interventions related to this question were:

• Interview José about his likes and dislikes at school.
• Provide José with a buddy who is more able to help him with his work while in the classroom.
• Provide José an alternate place to sit other than his desk.
• Make it clear to José that group work is encouraged and allow him to pick a group with whom he is comfortable working.
• Be sure that I meet with José each day to provide him feedback and encourage communication with me.

I thought that an interest inventory might provide me with some idea of his likes and dislikes while at school.  Speaking with the liaison might give José an opportunity to express his feeling in a non-threatening manner.  Hopefully I would be able to discover an outlet for José’s energies rather than the disruptive ones that he created on his own. 

I chose a different young man to be José’s working partner.  This young man speaks Portuguese but I noticed that José played with him on the playground and communication was not a problem as the languages are similar.  I chose this young man as a partner because is a very good student and shows much empathy to others.  He seems excited to help and seeks out José for projects.

During the discussion with José about his likes and dislikes, I approached the question of him preferring to sit at his desk or at a table.  I told him that I had noticed that he usually went to one of the tables to work.  He said that he does not like his desk.  He did not have a desk in El Salvador and it hurt his legs to bend them under the desk.  He liked the table because he could move more and stretch his legs.  I told him that I felt that was fair and that he was welcome to sit at a table, or on the floor, anytime he chose. 

My observations about José enjoying working with a group rather than alone were accurate.  He told me that he liked to work with his friends and that he understood better when he watched others work.  Although cooperative groups have always been a part of my program I got the impression that what José liked about his system is that he could pick the group members. 

According to Rothstein-Fisch, Greenfield, and Trumbull (1999), collectivism emphasizes the interdependence of family members.  Children are taught to be helpful to others and to contribute to the success of any group.  The authors also pointed out that collectivism is common in Mexico and Central and South America, particularly among the rural poor who have had limited formal education.  José’s background and desire to work within a group align him perfectly with this model.  Perhaps he was not yet comfortable in a classroom that included individualism.

José and I continued to meet each day.  He showed me the books he chose to take home for the evening.  His partner met with us and José let me know if there were something that he thought was a problem.  In turn, I let José know all the positives that I noticed during the day.

The interest inventory did not reveal as much about José’s likes and dislikes as I wanted.  I felt that part of the reason that did not work fully was that he was not yet comfortable enough with me to tell me something that I might not want to hear.  His previous experiences may have indicated to him that you tell the teacher what you think she wants to hear, not what you really think.  Once again, having to work through an interpreter could have also added to the problem.  I did learn that he did not like his desk and he did like working with his friends.  I also learned that he liked to draw and he confirmed my idea that he liked books about dinosaurs.

My idea of a different partner for José worked out very well.  Although I do believe that there was occasional communication issues, José’s partner used English when he could not come up with the Spanish words for what he wanted to say.  I noticed that José began to use a few English words.  He stuck close to his partner and there was a noticeable decline in the aggressive play.  The personalities of the two boys seemed to be very compatible.  Both José and his partner had a great sense of humor.  This added to the mood of the class and was rarely disruptive. 

One of the personality traits of José’s partner that I felt was having a positive affect on José was that his partner readily asks questions when he does not understand something.  Recently José has also been approaching me with questions.  He uses sign language and a few English words mixed with Spanish to help me understand his needs.

José is a very social young man and having the freedom to work in groups seems to have encouraged him to try many of the center activities.  He does this in various ways.  Often he copies from another child but he has also on occasion interpreted the task on his own and followed through without help. José is a strong visual learner which is to his benefit.

Perhaps it was because I was involved directly, but I felt that my daily meetings with José did much to enhance our relationship.  I would like to think that he saw me as a friend and helper rather than just an authority figure to be avoided.  Near the end of this research, José began to approach me on his own with questions.  He attempted to help me with my Spanish as I help with his English.  He seems to feel comfortable laughing at my pronunciation of the Spanish words and is quick to correct me and encourage me to try again. 

Hopefully more positive results of these interventions will be forthcoming.  By the end of this study, there had already been a drastic change in José’s behavior in the classroom.  In addition to the behavior that we were trying to modify, José’s academic skills grew at a rapid rate.  He attempted to speak a few English words and did so while making eye contact with me.  He indicated an increased comfort level in the classroom by speaking independently to me and concentrating on making himself understood.   Although his friend’s English ability was stronger, José frequently corrects his fellow student or speaks for him.  He appears to be very proud of his accomplishments.

My initial feeling that José’s behavior was somehow connected to his prior school and cultural experiences proved to be somewhat accurate. I realize that this study represents only a small piece of what is the total student and it is important to choose a target goal instead of trying to change the entire person all at once.  As it turns out, José is a very cooperative student who now seems to enjoy his role in the classroom.  He still laughs a lot and plays tricks on others.  He admitted in his interview that he liked to make people laugh at him and in El Salvador he always made people laugh.

José’s behavior did, on occasion, mimic that of a student with emotional problems and this behavior often prevented him from participating successfully in classroom activities.  However, by taking the time to further investigate his home and school situation I discovered that his behavior could be modified to allow him to feel a part of the group.

José arrived in the United States with little or no formal school experience that would allow him to make connections.  In addition, he was unable to get much support from his mother because her experiences with education had also been limited.  Because of this lack of experience José reverted back to what he knew of school in El Salvador and that was to play and hang out with friends.

As to the cultural question relating to the mismatch between José’s interactional style and that of the classroom, we both had to make some changes in our behavior.  According to Carger (1997) Latino children emerge from a culture that blankets them in supportive care.  It is a culture that does not foster competition and independence.  Giving José plenty of opportunities to work in cooperative groups and to interact with a support group of children gave him the confidence to proceed with his learning experiences. 

The implications for this study are numerous.  First, and most importantly, is the research that is available on Latino families who have immigrated to the United States.   It is likely that our schools are quite different from the schools in the home country of the parents (Holman, 1997).  It is vital to the success of all children that their culture be not only recognized but understood.  Just as we do not all have the same learning styles or intelligences which affect our learning, students do not bring the necessary background experience that allows them to blend into a classroom. 

[Several months after completing this study the author wrote] "I am happy to report that ‘José’ is doing great and the idea of him possibly being emotionally disturbed and needing special services is no longer being addressed. He is a fantastic young man and I feel that with his ability to adjust to new situations he will do well."

Carger, C.L. (1997).  Attending to new voices.  Educational Leadership, 39-43.

Goldenberg, C., Gallimore, R., Reese, L., & Garnier, H. (2001).  Cause or Effect?  A longitudinal study of immigrant Latino parents’ aspirations and expectations, and their children’s school performance.  American Educational Research Journal, 38(3), 547-582.

Holman, J.H. (1997).  Meeting the needs of Hispanic immigrants.  Educational Leadership, 37-38.

Jacobs, E. (1999). Cultural Inquiry Process (Online). Available: http://classweb.gmu.edu/classweb/cip/

Johnson, ,L., & Protheroe, N. (2003).  Culture and learning.  Arlington, VA:   Educational Research Service

Ogbu, J. (1992).  Understanding cultural diversity and learning.  Educational Researcher, 7-12.

Phelan, P., Davidson, A.L., & Yu, H.C. (1998).  Adolescents’ worlds:  Negotiating family, peers, and school.  NY:  Teachers College Press.  1-23.

Rothstein-Fisch, C., Greenfield, P. & Trumbull, E.  (1999).  Bridging cultures with classroom strategies.  Educational Leadership, 64-67.