CONF 735: GLOBAL CONTEXT OF CONFLICT
Professor Ho-Won Jeong
George Mason University
Institute for Conflict Analysis and Resolution
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Student Papers
GLOBALIZATION, INDIGENOUS PEOPLE AND ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE
Final Paper
by Vicky Troy
March 7, 2005
CONF 735
Global Context of Conflict:
Professor Ho-Won Jeong
INTRODUCTION
Throughout the world, political, economic, social, cultural and environmental pressures seem to be rising, which in turn, can become the catalysts for conflict. Our class examined the root causes of conflict in a global context in terms of "gender inequality, cultural differences, unequal North/South relations, militarism, economic oppression, genocide, mal-development, religious and ethnic struggle, and environmental scarcity." The main focus of my paper is environmental justice, although many of the other class topics inform may paper as well. For example, cultural differences, North/South relations, mal-development, and economic oppression all play a role in the Indigenous struggle for environmental justice. From our readings in class, I was struck by the negative effects that colonialism, and imperialism have had on Indigenous peoples and the environment. The Indigenous situation in a global context today does not seem that much different from the historic systems of colonialism and imperialism. Indigenous people still suffer much the same fate from current forces such as neo-colonialism, neo-libralism, capitalism, privatization, and unsustainable development. As these forces are applied and play out on a global scale, I can see how Indigenous people and the environment become "expendable" in what seems to be a zero-sum, asymmetric power game that can lead to ecocide as well as genocide. I tend to agree with the Indigenous Environmental Network's (IEN) assessment that the source of the above stated "pressures" can be traced to the long historical processes by which some societies have become increasingly alienated from the Mother Earth. We see this occurring through current globalization processes today, resulting in alienation from self, community and nature, which brings up issues of identity, security and relationship with others and the natural world.
As a Native American, I also identified with the plight of Indigenous peoples
and their struggle to maintain their lifeways and their connection to the
environment. I thought that these were some of the most urgent problems arising
from the various impacts of globalization. The varying concepts of "self
and environment" helped my understanding of this problem. And because
our environment is a finite resource and its destruction affects Indigenous
and non-Indigenous alike, a broader understanding of "self and environment"
may be a key factor towards transforming attitudes towards more sustainable
development. This paper is a map of how I came to understand what I think
is needed for Indigenous and non-Indigenous people to peacefully co-exist
on our shared planet. I offer suggestions on what can be done to turn a situation
of looming global environmental crises into environmental sustainability.
It seems to me that respect for the lifeways of Indigenous peoples and respect
for the environment go hand-in-hand.
In terms of the paper's organization, the paper begins with key concepts I
learned to fully understand what environmental conflict is and what it is
not. I also describe various definitions of environmental justice and point
out the difference between non-Indigenous and Indigenous definitions. Globalization
and social transformation both historically and currently are described next,
especially in terms of economic globalization through the mechanisms of the
World Trade Organization (WTO) and free trade agreements, which lead to further
"alienation from Mother Earth." The final sections of my paper explore
various concepts of self and environment, comparing and contrasting the different
epistemologies. From numerous scholars, I cite various ecological concepts
such as eco-cosmology, and the seven internalized orientations. In addition,
in the last section I offer the "Sacred Tree of Life" and its ties
to Native science as a possible model that integrates many of the ecological
concepts, and internalized orientations.
I also discuss some of the theoretical concepts, themes, and indigenous examples that struck me over the course of the semester that are relevant to environmental justice, citing Libiszweski and Homer-Dixon. By integrating some of these concepts, I was able to get a broader understanding of how environmental conflicts manifest which shed light on the struggles of indigenous groups today. In addition, I compare Weinberg's concept of "ecocidal destruction" of Central American bio-regions and the impact it had on Indigenous groups to what is currently happening in a global context today, citing examples of the World Trade Organization (WTO) and free trade initiatives. I also give examples of various U.S. Native American tribal struggles with the government regarding nuclear waste on ceded land.
Clearly, there is no easy solution to environmental problems stemming from
globalization and regional environmental degradation. It impacts both Indigenous
and non-Indigenous alike. The only difference is that the more powerful and
wealthy elite have more options in their "security" from environmental
crises. Indigenous people simply cannot pack up and leave to safer ground,
especially in terms of their ties to their homeland and/or reservations. And
finally, to answer one of my classmate's "so what!" statement, I
interpret that to mean "possible solutions to the problem." This
is a very relevant and appropriate question. I feel there is great insight
coming from Indigenous perspectives on the problem of environmental degradation,
which is subsequently supported by other non-native scholars (including Dr.
Jeong). It suggests that a paradigm shift is needed in order to understand
the "who," "what," "why" and "how"
questions regarding the environment and self. This means a greater understanding
is needed of the two opposing world views: the western (or non-native) view
of "man over nature" versus an Indigenous view of "man with
nature," or commodity versus ecology. This notion is discussed in depth
at the end of the paper.
UNDERSTANDING ENVIRONMENTAL CONFLICT
In terms of past and present Indigenous conflict, I found the Wieder Goodrich and Brecke article on pathways and mechanisms by which environmental change can lead to conflict, quite interesting and relevant. The article made me reconsider my assumptions about the definition of environmental conflict and the role the environment plays as described by Libiszweski and Homer-Dixon. Of the four types of "scarcity' according to Libiszweski, "conflicts caused by physical, geopolitical, or socio-economic resource scarcity are not environmental conflicts but traditional conflicts of resource distribution." The fourth type is called "environmental scarcity" and according to our readings, is the "most relevant to the study of environmental conflict." Libiszweski defines "environmental scarcity as being "resources that have traditionally been regarded as plentiful and naturally renewable, but are becoming scarce because of the failure of human beings to adopt sustainable methods of their management" (p. 1). From this definition, I can see how environmental problems can arise when nature is viewed as a type of commodity.
According to Homer-Dixon's model on the three types of environmentally induced conflicts (group identity, simple scarcity, relative deprivation), environmental scarcity has to be translated into a social phenomenon to produce conflict. From this, I can see how group identity, simple scarcity, and relative deprivation factors into environmental justice concerns of indigenous groups who also struggle against power imbalances. Historically, I would say that various indigenous groups found themselves in an identity conflict as more Europeans arrived and encroached on their lands. In terms of "simple-scarcity" conflicts which emerge when "competition for a single renewable resource exists." And when I apply Basic Human Needs theory, the most coveted resources are the ones essential for human survival (i.e. water, fish, land). It was interesting to know that according to Homer-Dixon, these renewable resources, "river water spawns the most contention…because they are collective goods that can be seized or controlled," which speaks to the asymmetry of power mentioned above. It also speaks to Homer-Dixon's "resource capture", a type of pattern that can play out due to environmental scarcity. Resource capture arises when "a fall in the quality and quantity of renewable resource combines with population growth that encourages groups within a society to shift resource distribution in their favor." This leads to diminished resource access "for the poorer and weaker groups whose claims to resources are opposed by these power elites." (p. 2).
Homer-Dixon also emphasize the distinction between group identity and simple
scarcity conflicts. Simple scarcity conflicts "do not involve the same
psychological and social processes" as group identity conflicts. The
examples I thought about to illustrate this notion are as follows: in terms
of identity conflict, indigenous peoples could not understand the concept
of "selling" the land as in Chief Seattle's historic speech about
the land does not belong to us, but vice versa. In terms of simple scarcity,
there are numerous conflicts still going on today dealing with hunting, fishing
and gathering rights of indigenous people's on ceded territory. Fishing, hunting
and gathering rights of indigenous people could also apply to Homer-Dixon's
third type, "relative deprivation" conflicts, which "refer
to civil strife and insurgency caused by unequal distribution." In other
words, when an environmental problem occurs and less wealth is produced, "citizens
become increasingly discontented by the widening gap between their actual
level of economic achievement and the level they feel they deserve" (p.
2). For example, there are many indigenous groups that depend on fishing for
their livelihood, such as the Klamath tribe in Oregon or the Yakama tribe
in the state of Washington, as well as the Inuit in Alaska and Canada.
The first pattern called "resource capture" which arises when "a fall in the quality and quantity of renewable resource combines with population growth that encourage groups within a society to shift resource distribution in their favor." This leads to diminished resource access "for the poorer and weaker groups whose claims to resources are opposed by these power elites."
The second pattern called "'economic marginalization' ensues when unequal resource access combines with population growth and causes parts of the population to migrate to regions that are ecologically fragile. The larger number of people and their lack of knowledge and capital to protect local resources decrease both the quantity and quality of renewable resources" (p. 2).
Homer-Dixon (1994) emphasizes "environmental scarcity as the root cause to many already occurring conflicts in the developing world," and through his research found that "the multiple effects of environmental scarcity appear to sharply weaken the capacity and legitimacy of the state in some poor countries" (p. 2).
I understand the implications of Libiszweski's definition of "environmental
scarcity" and Homer-Dixon's definition of "environmental change"
as being the mechanisms for environmental conflict. However, I then wondered
what the mechanisms were for Libiszweski's "failure of human beings to
adopt sustainable methods," and Homer-Dixon's "anthropogenic effect
outweighing natural process renewal effects." I had to ask myself, the
failure of whom and how and why did it fail? What led to the anthropogenic
effect? It seemed that both of these theories treat the earth as an object,
something separate from oneself that can be manipulated at will. The answers
to these questions become clearer in subsequent sections of this paper as
the definitions of 'environmental justice' and "alienation from earth"
are discussed.
DEFINITIONS OF ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE
Another component to my initial research for my paper was to compare the various
definitions of environmental justice. The following descriptions come from
a broad spectrum including states, non-profit environmental organizations,
and watch dog organizations, universities, the U.S. government, and the Native
American descriptions of environmental justice.
1-According to the Louisiana Department of Environmental Quality, environmental
justice is "the equitable treatment of all people, regardless of race,
income, culture, or social class, with respect to the development, implementation,
and enforcement of environmental laws, regulations, and policies." (www.deq.state.la.us/evaluation/tri/glossary.htm).
2-According to Our Children's Earth Foundation whose mission
is to protect the public - especially children - from the health impacts of
air pollution, with the goal of protecting the public by enforcing the Clean
Air Act. Through a combined strategy of litigation against agencies in violation
of the Clean Air Act, outreach programs to educate the public about their
rights, and advocacy projects that place pressure on the government entities.
The definition is "the fair treatment of people of all races and incomes
with respect to development, implementation, and enforcement of environmental
laws, regulations, and policies. Fair treatment implies that no person or
group of people should shoulder an unfair share of negative environmental,
health and economic impacts resulting from environmental programs."
(www.ocefoundation.org/glossary.html).
3-EnviroTools.org is created at Michigan State University and is sponsored by National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, the definition is: "the fair treatment of people of all races, cultures, incomes, and educational levels with respect to the development and enforcement of environmental laws, regulations, and policies. Fair treatment implies that no population should be forced to shoulder a disproportionate share of exposure to the negative effects of pollution due to lack of political or economic strength." (www.envirotools.org/glossary.shtml)
4-According to the USDA the definition is: "the pursuit of equal justice and equal protection under the law for all environmental statutes and regulations without discrimination based on race, ethnicity, and/or socio-economic status. Presidential Executive Order No. 12898 (issued February 11, 1994) requires Federal agencies to respond to the issue of environmental justice by "identify[ing] and address[ing] disproportionately high and adverse human health or environmental effects of its programs, policies, and activities on minority and low income populations." (www.srs.fs.usda.gov/sustain/data/authors/glossary.htm)
5-The National Association of County and City Health Officials (NACCHO) is the national nonprofit organization representing local public health agencies (including city, county, metro, district, and Tribal agencies). The definition is: "The fair treatment and meaningful involvement of all people, regardless of race, ethnicity, culture, income or education level with respect to the development, implementation, and enforcement of environmental laws, regulations, and policies. Environmental justice seeks to ensure that no population is forced to shoulder a disproportionate burden of the negative human health and environmental impacts of pollution or other environmental hazards." (http://www.naccho.org/search.cfm)
6-According to the University of Oregon the definition is "the
right to a safe, healthy, productive, and sustainable environment for all,
where "environment" is considered in its totality to include the
ecological (biological), physical (natural and built), social, political,
aesthetic, and economic environments. Environmental justice refers to the
conditions in which such a right can be freely exercised, whereby individual
and group identities, needs, and dignities are preserved, fulfilled, and respected
in a way that provides for self-actualization and personal and community empowerment.
This term acknowledges environmental "injustice" as the past and
present state of affairs and expresses the socio-political objectives needed
to address them."
(www.law.uoregon.edu/org/caer/ej_definitions.htm)
7-According to the Indigenous Environmental Network (IEN) "A network of Indigenous Peoples empowering Indigenous Nations and communities towards sustainable livelihoods, demanding environmental justice and maintaining the Sacred Fire of our traditions." The definition goes beyond the above definitions to include other aspects such as exploitation and de-colonization, sovereignty, treaty rights and relationship to Mother Earth. (http://www.ienearth.org/perspective_ej.html)
Native Perspective on the Definition of Environmental Justice
(IEN):
" To Native peoples, the term "environmental justice" goes
beyond the issue of disproportionate toxic and nuclear contamination and health
exposure of our elders, men, women, youth, children and our traditional food
web.
" It includes issues of exploitation, ecological damage, restoration
of natural resources, compensation for victims of exposures and protection
and healing of biological diversity that sustains us and allows us to practice
our culture, language, and spirituality.
" It includes the protection of all areas that are sacred and that are
culturally and historically significant to our peoples.
" It addresses economic development and social justice issues towards
building sustainable communities with safe and sustainable jobs and livelihoods.
" Environmental justice means the de-colonization of our minds and recognition
of traditional knowledge as the foundation of who we are.
" It addresses ethical and policy issues concerning biotechnology, ownership
of life, introduction of genetically modified organisms into the environment
and policy issues on intellectual property rights of Indigenous knowledge.
" It means developing and maintaining education and language programs
that teaches adults and the younger generation what their relationship is
to the sacredness of our Earth Mother.
" It means understanding and defending our treaties and to exercise our
right to self-determination as Indigenous peoples.
" It means to claim our inherent right to protect our traditional land,
water, air and our future generations.
" In the United States, it means the right to develop our own tribal
environmental protection programs with our own water and air quality standards,
and seek delegated authority to implement our own environmental programs -
which strengthens our sovereignty.
" In the United States and Canada, it means to have the right to fully
protect our environment and all natural resources in our traditional territories,
reserves and reservations by applying, monitoring and enforcing our own tribal-based
environmental, historical, sacred areas, endangered species and conservation
laws.
" Environmental justice means to be active - from the grassroots to tribal
government - in all policy decisions from the local, tribal, state, national
and international levels where policy development is being made that would
affect our future generations and all life that sustains us and our Earth
Mother.
When comparing the seven definitions of environmental conflict, the Native
American perspective covers a broader range of issues than the other definitions.
The most striking to me was the immense difference between the first five
and the last two. The first five pretty much say the same thing in terms of
"fair and equitable treatment with respect to the development, implementation,
and enforcement of environmental laws, regulations, and policies, statutes."
In addition, "no person or group of people should "shoulder an unfair
share of negative environmental, health and economic impacts resulting from
environmental programs." The sixth definition from the University of
Oregon (UO) is the closest definition to the Native perspective in that it
encompasses a more personal level which includes identity, self-actualization
and empowerment, with no mention about laws, regulations or policies in its
definition. Environmental justice, according to UO, "refers to the conditions
in which such a right can be freely exercised, whereby individual and group
identities, needs, and dignities are preserved, fulfilled, and respected in
a way that provides for self-actualization and personal and community empowerment."
The seventh definition-the Native perspective-includes historical and traditional
perspectives and lifeways, collective trauma, and the need to be included
in the decision making process on environmental policies. It also recognizes
a new form of racial discrimination (environmental racism) against Indigenous
Peoples, which means "the implementation of environmental, natural resource
and development schemes that nullify or impair the enjoyment of the human
rights and fundamental freedoms of Indigenous Peoples." The Native definition
brings up not only the issue of power relations but also the relationships
between identity and security according to Maria Stern-Pettersson's (1998)
article entitled "Reading Mayan Women's In/Security."
GLOBALIZATION & SOCIETAL TRANSFORMATION
What is Economic Globalization:
Globalization is the process in which goods, services, and capital, move more
freely within and among nations. Globalization can also refer to the movement
of people (labor) and knowledge (technology) across international borders.
In addition, as globalization advances, national boundaries become more and
more permeable, and to a certain extent, less relevant. Economic globalization,
as a historical process, is the result of human innovation and technological
progress. Economic globalization refers to the increasing integration of economies
around the world through trade and financial flows.
Societal Transformation and the World Trade Organization (WTO):
Through imperialism, neo-colonialism, capitalism, privatization, and globalization
the WTO regime has created a world of widespread poverty, wasteful consumption
by a few and ever widening gap between the rich and poor.
--Kito Declaration
Weinberg's (1991) article on "ecocidal destruction" and "biological holocaust" made such an impact on me. It gave me a clearer understanding of what happened to the Indigenous peoples of Central America and shed light on the numerous conflicts that for decades broke out in that region. I already knew about the negative forces working against North American Indians, and through Weinberg's article, I was able to see the social transformation of Indigenous cultures in Mesoamerica. According to Weinberg's article, the agro-export economy has been in place for five centuries and reduced Central America to economic dependency on foreign markets and recently, foreign-grown food. I then wondered how such a process is carried out today on a global scale.
According to the Environmental Network website (www.ienearth.org), "Over 80% of the world's remaining biodiversity is found within Indigenous peoples' lands and territories." Upon further research on the IEN website, it seems that ecocidal destruction and the agro-export economy is "alive and well," although today, it has taken on a different form that works through international mechanisms. According to the IEN, international organizations such as the World Trade Organization (WTO) and free trade agreements are the global mechanisms for which the very same processes are carried out, with the same results.
In IEN's description of the WTO, it states "the WTO is comprised of trade
representatives appointed by its 134 member nations and functions as a sort
of supreme global trade court…. The WTO provides transnational corporations
(TNCs) with the legal channels to coerce foreign nations to repeal any trade
regulations which the WTO deems a "trade barrier" (i.e. any regulation
which values life over profit.) The TNC must appeal to a member nation to
bring their complaint to the WTO. If the WTO rules in the TNC's favor, then
the TNC's country may sue the resistant foreign nation for compensation until
they repeal their regulation. It is important to note that governmental regulations
which protect human rights, labor, health, or the environment are "barriers
to free trade," and will, if the WTO has its way, be repealed."
From IEN's Globalization and Indigenous People's report from the July, 2004
II Continental Summit of the Indigenous Peoples and Nationalities of AYA YALA,
I was able to research the Indigenous perspective on the effects of globalization.
The Summit was organized by the Confederation of Indigenous Nationalities
of Ecuador (CONAIE), the Organization of Quichua Nationalities of Ecuador
(ECUARUNARI) and the Coordinating Body for the Indigenous Organizations of
the Amazon Basin (COICA), with participants from 64 Indigenous Peoples and
Nationalities.
According to the IEN Report from the Summit, Indigenous peoples in the U.S. and in other regions of the world "are expressing their concern over how a global agenda of imperialism and neo-colonialism is continuing today." In terms of political economy, their concern is that the world is becoming more controlled by a relative handful of elites, "the super-wealthy people and powerful corporations and the countries they control." They view it as an "insatiable quest for power and profit which continues today at the expense of the livelihoods of approximately 350 million Indigenous individuals in the world that make up approximately 90% of the world's cultural diversity." In addition, through WTO global initiatives and other free trade negotiations (i.e. Free Trade Areas of the Americas "FTAA") as well as, recent emergence of regional free trade initiatives led by the U.S., "will further destroy Mother Earth and the cultural and biological diversity of which all humans and all life are a part."
However, on the flip-side of globalization and its negative
impacts come the positive advantages of the capability to "collapse of
time and space," such as, coalition building, generating public awareness,
and mobilization. In response to these negative global forces, "Indigenous
peoples and Civil society are organizing within the U.S. and globally to intensify
the resistance against what they feel are undemocratic WTO and free trade
initiatives dominated by the U.S. and imperialist powers." The IEN Report
further indicates:
On the agenda of the dominant governments are the extension of liberalization
on a broader range of products and services. These forces are imposing such
one-sided agreements as the Agreement on Trade and Services (AOA), the General
Agreement on Trade and Services (GATS) and the Trade Related Intellectual
Property Rights (TRIPs). Those cover such issues as the privatization of health,
education and water, forcing genetically modified organisms (GMO) foods and
seeds on member countries and patents on life forms, especially ripping apart
the natural protective barriers of countries for their basic agricultural
products.
Trade liberalization and export-oriented development, which are the overriding
principles and policies pushed by the WTO, are creating the most adverse impacts
on the lives of Indigenous peoples, local communities and especially the developing
countries.
The aim of the WTO, according to the Report, is "to pry open the local
economies of local communities and developing countries for plunder by giant
corporate monopolies." However, at the same time "the imperialist
countries protect their own industries and agriculture through subsidies and
credit," while "they dictate on others to remove so-called barriers
to "free-trade" such as tariffs and foreign exchange controls."
In the U.S., Indigenous tribes have an inherent right to sovereignty and self-determination.
Tribal nations have treaties and other constructive agreements that were negotiated
with the U.S. which the tribes feel have been undermined by most of the WTO
Agreements. The Report further indicates:
The disproportionate impact of these agreements on our communities, whether
through environmental degradation, actions of bio-piracy with the patenting
of Indigenous medicinal plant and seed knowledge, or the militarization and
violence that often accompanies development projects, is serious and perpetuates
imperialism and with it an increase of corporate terrorism disguised as protection
and security actions to protect its assets.
The Stern-Petterson (1998) article entitled "Reading Mayan Women's In/Security,"
is relevant to the "security actions" stated in the Kito Declaration
excerpt above. According to Stern-Petterson, the central conceptualization
of "security" in traditional, International Relations discourse
whereby the "state is the predominant if not sole recipient and agent
of security." In addition, "national security is viewed in military
terms, military defense and the strategies designed for this defense."
According to this logic, "the state does not pose a threat to its people,
but is their protector." And therefore, "the state (a fixed or static
category) enjoys a monopoly over the use of 'legitimate' violence in both
domestic and international environments." What is paramount is nation
security "because as the principle of state sovereignty dictate states
compete in a hostile international system characterized by belligerent 'other.'"
Therefore, the nation-state is "the ultimate target and the agency of
security." In terms of identity and security, "national identity
predominates and incorporates all other political identifications; any challenges
to its hegemony are thereby waylaid" according to the Stern-Petterson
article.
The IEN Report continues with Indigenous concerns about philosophy behind
the WTO Agreements that are in opposition to Indigenous philosophy. According
to the Report, "the whole philosophy underpinning the WTO Agreements
and the principles and policies it promotes contradict Indigenous peoples'
core values, spirituality and worldviews, as well as their concepts and practices
of development, trade and environmental protection." Relevant to this
point is Michelle LeBaron's article on "Mediation and Multicultural Reality."
In the LeBaron article, there are three important concepts to remember regarding
culture: (1) individualistic and collectivistic societies; (2) traditional
and modern societies; and (3) high and low context cultures. Related to this,
is when it comes to globalization, high context is turned into low context.
Alienation from Mother Earth:
According to IEN, "[w]hen we look at the long history of imperialism,
both in the Americas and in the world, it seems to be threatened by land-based
cultures that have strong profound spiritual relationship to the Mother Earth."
The concept of alienation from Mother Earth "has roots in imperialism
and colonialism." If you compare historic systems of imperialism and
colonialism with what is currently being carried out through economic globalization,
initiatives of free trade, privatization and development policies, both phenomena
seem to have no tie to nature. The negative impact is much the same in terms
of destroying indigenous people's traditional ways of life.
IEN further describes this notion as being intellectually rooted in the western
concept of dualism that "sets humanity apart from nature and legitimizes
the view that humanity has not only the right, but also the obligation to
subdue nature for its own benefit." Furthermore, it is institutionally
rooted "in the institution of money, which creates a powerful illusion
that people can live apart from, and are no longer dependent upon, nature.
Therefore, I would agree with the IEN that "[t]he dominant industrialized
society has no understanding of their relationship to the sacredness of our
Mother Earth." And through governmental practices of imperialism, neo-colonialism,
privatization and capitalism treat nature as something useful for commercial
advantage. The impact of this worldview "pushes forward an unsustainable
concept of the natural world as 'property' and therefore a commodity to be
"exploited freely and bought and sold at will." The end result is
a disjuncture or "disharmony between human beings and the natural world."
This concept is totally incompatible with a traditional Indigenous worldview.
So if you consider that it took a particular world view of "nature as
property and commodity" that led to an unsustainable concept of the natural
world, it would seem likely that a new world view is needed to create an sustainable
concept. Fortunately, the IEN (the U.S. based Indigenous non-governmental
organizations) are challenging the WTO "by applying Indigenous rights
and human rights based approach in organizing to redefine its principles and
practices toward a 'sustainable communities' paradigm, transparency and democratic
processes, and to recognize and allow for the continuation of other worldviews
and models of development." And, finally the Report indicates something
very ominous as well as inspiring that gives hope for the future:
The remaining Indigenous peoples of the U.S. and the world are a threatened
human species, most especially, those that still maintain and practice their
land-based cultures. But Indigenous peoples are fighting for all people and
all life that is threatened by this imperialism and its agenda for world domination
and control. Indigenous peoples from the U.S. and globally, believe that it
is also they who can offer viable alternatives to the dominant economic growth,
export-oriented development model. Indigenous peoples sustainable lifestyles
and cultures, traditional knowledge, cosmologies, spirituality, values of
collectivity, reciprocity, respect and reverence for Mother Earth, are crucial
in the search for a transformed society where justice, equity, and sustainability
will prevail.
In the above IEN Report excerpt, it is the "viable alternatives"
that I would like to explore next. The first concept is Jeong and Bretherton's
"ecocentric identity." The second concept is Vine Deloria's (1973)
"Thinking in Time and Space." The third concept is Henry Skolimowski's
(1992) "eco-philosophy" and "eco-cosmology." And the fourth
concept which makes a useful model, is Gregory Cajete's "Sacred Tree
of Life."
CONCEPTS OF SELF & ENVIRONMENT
Ecocentric Identity:
In the book chapter "Ecocentric Identity and Politics," Jeong and Bretherton indicate a transformation in the social structure is needed by way of the formation of an "ecocentric identity." Jeong and Bretherton state "power relations and cultural norms of a contemporary society legitimize a dangerously dysfunctional relationship between human collectivities and the ecosystems." Jeong and Bretherton lend support to the IEN's "viable alternative" in that "the existing social structure needs to be transformed to eliminate the oppression of both nature and humans." And a social transformation that has at its core "[t]he acceptance of the equal worth of all life forms as well as the essential inter-relatedness and interdependence of the ecosystems would inevitably result from the rejection of all forms of exploitation." Jeong and Bretherton indicate that the work being carried out today in social ecology whereby, "ecological issues are approached through campaigns against the structures of social injustice that are deeply embedded in hierarchical relations." Furthermore, to carry out this work, Jeong and Bretherton point out the necessity to "reconceptualise one's own place and the willingness to recognize the identity of human beings as a species within the ecosystem," which is the key to developing an "ecocentric identity." A self-realization to be "achieved through extending awareness and receptivity with nature is a transformative process to heal ourselves in the world."
To broaden my understanding of "ecocentric identity", it is important to point out that it does not mean one has to give up something but rather the transformation would be an uncovering of something that has been lost. Perhaps this would mean recovering something that IEN calls "alienation from Mother Earth." Jeong and Bretherton describe it as:
Ecocentric identity does not entail a loss or negation of the self with the dissolution of particular beings but an opportunity to recover one's true nature. In traditional views of identity, this holistic relationship between the self and the cosmos may appear to imply loss of individuality, autonomy and, in particular, self esteem. In practice, however, seeing the self as part of the cosmos would entail widening the sense of self - and hence an expansion in the scope of identity. 'Personal self-realization is not incomprehensible apart from one's dialectical interaction with other persons, with the community, and with the larger natural world' (Clark, 1998, p. 425). This would be similar to, but much greater than, that experienced through an exclusive identification with a people or nation. Thus, the apparent eclipsing or immersion of the self within the greater whole by taking one's place in a particular bioregional ecosystem or the large biosphere is not experienced as a loss.
Search for a large self involves a constant mediation between one's individual self and the larger whole, as self-actualization does not create artificial boundaries. The realisation that 'life is fundamentally one' provides a cosmological basis for identification (Naess, 1989, p. 166). An ecological self can be considered not as an entity, or a thing, but as 'an opening to discovering what some call the Absolute'(Devall, 1995, p. 104). Humans and nature are not divided as subject and object, invoking the notion of contingency and participation. Our experience of the world is enriched by the recognition of interconnectedness, interdependence, and diversity of all phenomena.
Thinking in Time and Space:
What also broadened my understanding of the notions of "alienation from Mother Earth" and "taking one's place in a particular bioregional ecosystem" from the above excerpts, comes from the work of the Lakota scholar, Vine Deloria. As described in his book entitled "God is Red: A Native View of Religion" (1973) in the chapter entitled "Thinking in Time and Space," Deloria states "there appears to be a peculiar relationship between thinking in temporal and spatial terms." (pp. 72). Deloria further explains the historical roots of this concept:
When the domestic ideology is divided according to American Indian and Western European immigrant…the fundamental difference is one of great philosophical importance. American Indians hold their lands-places-as having the highest possible meaning, and all their statement are made with this reference point in mind. Immigrants review the movement of their ancestors across the continents, thereby placing history-time-in the best possible light. When one group is concerned with the philosophical problem of space and the other...of time, then the statements of either group do not make much sense when transferred form one context to the other without the proper consideration of what is taking place.
Western European peoples have never learned to consider the nature of the world discerned from a spatial point of view. And a singular difficulty faces peoples of Western European heritage in making a transition form thinking in terms of time to …[that] of space. The very essence of Western European identity involves the assumption that time proceeds in a linear fashion; further, it assumes that a particular point in the unraveling of this sequence, the peoples of Western Europe became the guardians of the world. The same ideology that sparked the Crusades, the Age of Exploration, the Age of Imperialism…all involve the affirmation that time is peculiarly related to the destiny of the people of Western Europe. And later of course, the United States. The postwar generation of which we are a part has refused to accept any alternation of this fundamental premise. (pp. 61-62).
However, the good news is according to Deloria, "[t]he
shift in thinking from temporal consideration to spatial considerations may
be seen in a number of mini-movements by which we are struggling to define
American society. Ecology…self determination of goals by local communities,
and citizenship participation all seem to be efforts to recapture a sense
of place and a rejection of the traditional American dependence on progress-a
temporal concept-as a measure of American identity." (pp. 72-73).
Eco-Philosophy & Eco-Cosmolgy:
According to Henry Skolimowski (1992, p.3), "Eco-philosophy…is like
a tree. Out of the roots of eco-cosmology grow the trunk and branches of eco-philosophy…The
tree is crowned with ecological consciousness, which in subtle ways feeds
back into its roots. Thus the cycle is complete and self-renewing within itself."
Skolimowski was one of the first to articulate an eco-philosophy for the transformation
of thought needed for a new ecological consciousness. In his 1981 study, Eco-philosophy:
Designing New Tactics for Living, he states that because current political
systems threaten to rob us of our highest values and because the current basis
for action is no longer deeply rooted in life-serving purposes or reverence
for nature, we need a new philosophy to inform and guide us. Skolimowski writes
of the loss of soul in modern philosophy, bereft of a language that cannot
speak of love, soul, or spirit, and advocates the recycling of minds toward
the realization of a living philosophy. Because the current worldview causes
escalation of our destructive relationship with the environment at every level
of life, human meaning atrophies. The emerging environmental cosmology will
be in conflict with the popular mechanistic view. This "cosmic"
conflict can be seen in the energy underlying philosophical, political, religious,
and economic debates all over the world.
A modern "ecosophy" would be about the rediscovery of meaning as
it relates to our universe. It would require not only a different way of thinking,
but also a different way of knowing and living. Such an ecosophy would rebuild
a unitary view of the cosmos in which everything is interdependent and moved
by creative energy, one that views the Earth and the universe with reverence
and explores our essential relationships and responsibilities therein. It
would be, essentially, the philosophy Indigenous people have lived by for
generations, writ large.
"We must not presume," wrote Skolimowski, "that the present
day, scientific explanation of the structure of the universe is the only legitimate
explanation, and that scientific cosmology is the only legitimate cosmology"
(1992, p.9). Spurred by the development of quantum physics with its view of
the universe as one indivisible whole, some Western scientists have begun
to change their orientation from conviction of an absolute to one of relative
truth among many truths and possible orientations and cosmologies. In truth,
any story of the cosmos has to be metaphysical because every method of research
stems from a cultural orientation, a paradigm of thinking that has a history
in a particular tradition. There can be no such thing as a fully objective
story of the universe. The cosmology of the Hopi is as valid and internally
consistent as that of Western science.
Skolimowski (1992, pp.16-27) contends that the emerging eco-cosmology and
the philosophies that it gives rise to must rest on seven internalized orientations:
" The new cosmology must reflect realization that the fate of the Earth
is now intimately intertwined with the fate of the human species. We are the
universe and the universe is us.
" Evolution is a continuum of creative becoming, and humans are the result
of this process as well as its facilitators.
" With our creative evolution of mind, we are reflections and participants
of a greater universal whole. We are the Earth being conscious of itself.
" Humans are but one manifestation of an implicate universal order. All
parts of this order interpenetrate one another. They are holistically codependent-"we
are all related."
" Hope for human meaning and destiny underpins the motivation for human
attempts to realize themselves and to affirm a future with compassion, courage,
solidarity, and action.
" We continue to engender and cultivate reverence for life as a way of
action and to acknowledge the beauty of life and the miracles of which it
is an expression.
" In understanding the evolution and application of ecological ethics,
we revere all living things, taking responsibility for our relationship to
the Earth, for doing more with less, and for pursuing wisdom and self-actualization
rather than all-consuming materialism.
Eco-philosophy signals the beginning of a new epistemology: pluralistic, life-rooted,
cosmos oriented in contradistinction to the present one which is matter-rooted
and mechanism oriented" (Skolimowski 1992, p.55)….These orientations
form a distinctly different conceptual framework, a kind of philosophical
foundation needed to repair the damage of the former cosmology and to create
an eco-consciousness that will engender new mythologies we can live by and
a transformative worldview…The emphasis of education must be turned toward
conditioning for what Skolimowski calls the "ecological person,"
a contemporary version of the Indigenous man and woman. Ancient axioms of
Indigenous education such as finding face, finding heart, becoming a complete
man or woman in right relationship to one's self, family, community, nd the
natural world resound in the following perspective Skolimowski developed in
1992. he postulates an interactive relationship between cosmology, philosophy,
values, and action. Education, as an institution, falls in the realm of "action,"
the action by which we transfer the cosmology, philosophy, and values to each
other and subsequent generation, and which therefore plays a profound role
in how eco-philosophy might take hold. Education is a major part of the problem
as well as major part of the solution.
Eco-philosophy seeks to reintegrate values with a worldview, in a direct and
ecologically informed way that mirrors the level of integration achieved by
Indigenous peoples. Just as new forms of life are evolutionary-created out
of older forms-so new forms of knowledge and systems of learning must be created
out of the most promising spiritual and cultural heritages of the past…An
eco-education would draw from the knowledge, understanding, and creative thinking
of past and present in order to prepare for a sustainable future." (pp.
58-64).
Native Science and the Sacred Tree of Life:
"The earth does not belong to man; man belongs to the earth. All things
are connected, like the blood that unites us. Man did not weave the web of
life; he is merely a strand in it. Whatever he does to the web he does to
himself."
-Chief Seattle, Suquamish Tribe (1854)
In Vine Deloria's (1973) chapter on "Thinking in Time and Space"
he states, "Before a final solution to American history can occur, a
reconciliation must be effected between the spiritual owner of the land-American
Indians-and the political owner of the land-American whites. Guilt and accusations
cannot continue to revolve in a vacuum without some effort at reaching a solution."
(p. 75). I understand from the various concepts presented in this paper environmental
justice cannot be solely achieved through Indigenous victories in the court
because that process is just another zero-sum game. A paradigm shift and epistemological
transformations must also occur if we are to get at the root of the global
environmental degradation problem. I agree that certain groups of people became
more alienated from Mother Earth and time, and spatial thinking played an
historical role in that process. I also agree that by embracing an eco-philosophy
and developing an ecocentric-identity, change can occur that will help heal
Mother Earth. And certainly the scholars I cited in this paper would agree
that cosmology, philosophy, and ideology rooted in Indigenous thought and
spirituality, plays a role in that transformation. With that said, all I needed
was a model to solidify my understanding of those terms. What does a "cosmological
basis for identification" or a "holistic relationship between the
self and the cosmos" look like? What does it all mean? Is there a metaphor
or a symbol that would bring further understanding of why we "belong
to the earth"?
From Gregory Cajete's book entitled "Native Science: Natural Laws of
Interdependence" (2000), "cosmology is the contextual foundation
for philosophy, a grand guiding story, by nature speculative, it tries to
explain the universe, its origin, characteristics, and essential nature. A
cosmology gives rise to philosophy, values, and action, which in turn form
the foundation of a society's guiding institutions." The "Sacred
Tree of Life" seems to be a good model that ties the various concepts
from scholars cited in my paper together. Cajete describes the Sacred
Tree of Life as follows:
The Sacred Tree of Life, as an analogy for the evolving process of Native
science and quest for knowledge, presents a cosmological and structural symbol
for Native science that embodies its life and nature-centered orientations.
Native science is in every sense an expression of the evolutionary interrelationship
of Native people with nature. The tree presents an archetype of life, learning,
and development that begins with the sprouting of a seedling from a seed embedded
in fertile ground, then moves to the various stages of growth and development
through all seasons of life and its trials and tribulations until it begins
to form seed of its own. The tree is natural analogy for a living philosophy.
Each species of tree is of a particular "tribe" originating and
rooted in the soil of a particular place, living and growing into its own
particular form and completing itself in the distinct way of its species,
yet having its own unique and one-of-a-kind expression of life. The leaves,
fruits, and seeds of each tree are really the outward expression of its life
and its "treeness." Each of these is an expression of the philosophy,
art, and soul of the tree and of Native cultures. (pp. 58).
The Sacred Tree of Life is, therefore, a symbolic metaphor of "ecological
philosophy represented in many aspects of myth and ceremony throughout Native
America." Cajete further explains that:
Native stories often refer to the Tree of Life as the life-giving principle
of the Earth that nourishes and connects all life. It is a symbol of the core
orientations of the Native philosophies of holding life sacred and rootedness
to the Earth. It is a living symbol and source of that divine energy of life
expressed in language, song, dance, art, and science. The roots, trunk, branches,
and leaves of this sacred tree may be seen as symbolic expressions of the
various dimensions of Native science. The thousands of expressions of Native
science are symbolic leaves of this great Tree of Life. Native science expresses
the hope that this great tree will continue to flourish in the hearts of all
mankind.
Cajete (2000) contrasts this notion with the Western notions of "techno
values of power, control, and efficiency" which are "championed
by institutions and organizations, and the modern hero is a practical, action-oriented,
business-minded individualist," whose symbols are about "the technological
civilization and the cosmology on which it is based." Cajete likens this
notion to a "Faustian person" whose "modern business acts on
its sense of entitlement no matter what the expense." A Faustian person's
actions have "literally no frames of reference other than individual
gratification and institutional profit and include the plunder of the natural
world as a means to self-serving ends." Consequently, this "applied
technology, science, and economics have trivialized our lives and sterilized
our spiritual sense of being." And an immature cosmology "spawns
immature individual values and institutions." (pp. 57-74).
CONCLUSION:
In conclusion, I agree with Cajete (2000), in terms of environmental justice, there is a ray of hope in that the "immature Faustian individual is experiencing final self-indulgence…[and] the era of the 'ecological individual' is by necessity dawning." As Western society's cosmology "has misfired, resulting in environmental destruction, so have its philosophies, values, actions, and guiding institutions." And the creation of an "ecological cosmology with its philosophy for the individual must now be sought through education and in our political and economic systems." (p. 74). A paradigm shift is needed to connect humanity to nature. And like Deloria (1973) says, thinking spatially rather than temporally might bring about a more spiritual sense of mother nature such as Skolimowski's (1992) "eco-philosophy" conceptual framework that is pluralistic, life-rooted, and cosmos oriented. Cajete's "Sacred Tree of Life" seems to be a good model that if introduced into the school system that can bring about a nature-centered orientation and a greater understanding of the interrelationship between humans and nature, and that all life is sacred.
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WEB:
Hanford Watch Organization: http://www.hanfordwatch.org/
Indigenous Environmental Network (IEN). www.ienearth.org.
Native Americans and the Environment
www.ehso.com/ehshome/Native%20Americans%20and%20the%20Environment.htm
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June 6, 2003
http://www.tri-cityherald.com/tch/local/story/3243847p-3273685c.html