CONF 803: MACRO THEORIES OF CONFLICT RESOLUTION
Professor Ho-Won Jeong
George Mason University
Institute for Conflict Analysis and Resolution
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Notes and Disucssions
Burton, John W. "Institutional Values and Human Needs" in Deviance,
Terrorism, and War.
Maneesha S. Wanasinghe-Pasqual
Hypothesis -
No one asks why deviant behavior occurs (causation). There are certain "human
needs" that are not culturally derived and which are not learnt through
socialization. These are "human needs" as defined by society/institutions
and basic human needs which are in existence no matter what. Then, these basic
"human needs" take president over socially/institutionally coerced/influenced/inculcated
values. Values which are not basic human needs are societal, cultural or institutional
values, which are not universal nor are they always for the benefit of the
individual, for they originate out of elite need to keep order and their power.
When individual needs cannot be met or are incompatible with the institutional
values, it results in behavior that is defined by society as deviant. It can
become a conflict, "if an attempt is made to subordinate individual values
to social values, then, because it is not possible to enforce social values
that are inconsistent with human needs, there will be responses that are damaging
both to the individual and, through him, to the social system." p. 83
Burton's views are anti-Realist since "deterrence by threat
is a weak control of behavior." p. 77. Initially, he asks 2 questions
-
1. Are there universal values/needs held by individuals that might be incompatible
with society's?; and
2. Can these basic individual values (or needs as he later defines) be frustrated
y socialization?
Needs -
o Needs - "are always present: individual needs that are as basic to
harmonious social relationships as food and shelter are to the individual.
They do not depend on stages of development. The argument is that without
the satisfaction of these needs the individual will find the norms of society
in which he behaves - primitive, traditional or industrial - to be inappropriate
because these norms cannot be used by him to secure his needs. He will invent
his own norms and be labeled deviant, or disrupt himself as a person rather
than forgo these needs." p. 60
o Cultural Values - "not only the local manifestation of needs, but also,
like social norms, the tools used to pursue needs … However, not all
cultural values are manifestations of universal needs. Some are clearly acquired
and relate to interests." p. 60
o Traditional - "needs can be achieved or satisfied only to the extent that conditions allow: if not so satisfied they are required to be suppressed by self-control, by acceptance of law and customs and by moral obligation. However, implicit in the hypothesis that there are certain human needs and desires that are universal is the view that they will be satisfied." p. 76
o Needs must be met or deviant behavior will arise. "social norms are … , means of satisfying needs. Many, if not most members of societies, find some or most norms useful to them. However, norms will not be observed if they are not found to be useful. They are tools and useful only to the extent that they accomplish what is sought. The individual in society … will engage in deviant behavior despite the possible consequences, if needs and desires can be satisfied only by these means" p. 76
o "of then norms of society inhibit and frustrate to the
degree that he decides they are no longer useful, then, subject to values
he attaches to social relationships, he will employ methods outside the norms,
outside the codes he would in other circumstances wish to apply … he
will be labeled deviant " pp. 78 - 79
[Q - But what about prisoners of war, hostages, and abused spouses who continue
to live with their abusers? Don't they subconsciously reject their needs?
]
o As long as the conditions that negate or frustrate basic human
needs are in existence, neither rehabilitation or deterrence cannot permanently
alter behavior. It is uncertain whether Burton looks at this as a negative/pessimistic
or positive/optimistic factor. Perhaps a focus on rehabilitation is a good
point, but even then, the basic human needs have to be met.
The focus is more on socio-biological needs than cultural values. Hence, introducing
the needs are intrinsic/natural while cultural values are dependent on socialization.
While socio-psychological needs change, socio-biological needs do not. [e.g.
in page 80]
History and Development of the Human Needs theory
Ø Sites (1973) Control theorist.
o "postulates eight, all of which require fulfillment and, therefore,
none of which is necessarily more important than others." p. 72. Therefore,
there are needs for
1. Response
2. Stimulation
3. Security
4. Recognition
[Q - Are these needs only limited to humans? Why not primates?]
o "Out of these four needs others develop which make qualitative
differences to development, though learning may be possible in their absence."
p. 72
5. Distributive justice
6. Appear rational and to develop rationality
7. Meaning
8. Sense of control
o The above list is from the point-of-view of the "inferior"
in the relationship who have to struggle for these needs. This is in contrast
to the needs of the "superiors" who want to safeguard/protect their
needs. (role difference).
o This is also similar to Maslow's hierarchy of needs.
Ø Wilson (1974) Sociological Human Motivations
o Gives support to Sites' list "with its emphasis on identity, recognition,
security and control. These are the sociopsychological and sociobiological
needs that finally underpin, modify or destroy institutions." pp. 74
- 75
o Has argued that the "interest in human needs is an interest in properties of actors behaving in a social system, the recognition of which is required for system survival." p. 79
Other Influences
Ø Fall of feudalism, development of international Human Rights, independence
movements which brought attention to human/individual needs.
Ø Idealistic literature of the mid-20th century condemning the capitalist
system
Ø Theorists' focus
o Nisbet (1976) - Human concerns and not institutional concerns. Human needs
are constant.
o Sites (1973) - Human needs are universal and less culturally dependent.
o Gurr (1970) - Human needs are essential for individual and through them,
for society. Focused on welfare, power, and interpersonal values.
o Galtung (1969) - Structural violence (the gap between the actual and potential
of individual development)
o Burns (1977) - Nature of leadership
o Enloe (1973) - Ethnicity as vehicle for satisfaction
o Social Workers - "confronted by the conflict between the demands of
the social environment and human needs." p. 70
§ Towle (1973) - needs of children and the sick including security, creativity,
and skill.
§ Pringle (1974) - needs of the children
§ Moccoby (1968) - "The more thought and attention given to human
needs, the greater precision in defining them, the greater and not less this
conflict becomes. The primary purpose of socialization is to 'provide individuals
who will not only confirm to society prescribed rules (and roles) of conduct
but will, as members of society, accept them as their own values'." p.
71
§ Boehm (1958) - the problem-solving functions of the social worker
o Ardery (1966) - Territory and security
o Eibl-Eibesfeldt (1971) - Relationships and respect
o Nance (1975) - "security through isolation eliminates aggressive behavior"
p. 75
o Blau (1964) - Loss of independence and development of bargaining and power
based relationships. "Normative sanctions emerge as the means of controlling
power relationships." p. 77
Informs of the negative propositions about Human Needs
i. Relativism and bias of people
ii. The problem of how to handle basic needs are approached without seeking
any solution
iii. Normative and culturally-defined human needs are political and social
structures (i.e. - the elite develop the system/structure and want the status-quo
to continue so they coerce/socialize adaptive behavior)
iv. Different disciplinary analysis of deviance provide different answers
because each focus on one specific social unit and therefore cannot explain
the real reason for deviant behavior (which, according to Burton, is human
needs not being met)
How to Handle Social Problems that arise out of Needs?
1. Problem-solving approach/technique that "take into account the total
situation" p. 80. this is not good because immediate social problems
are solved but not the underlying problem.
So, alternatively
2. It is better to "take individual needs as social goals and adopt the relevant strategies … [thereby] tackling deviant behavior in its social context … In short, applying the tests of recognition, stimulation, distributive justice and others to the strategies adopted in solving social problems." p. 82
[Q - Is this "erosion of coercive authority" p. 83,
really linear or it is more cyclical?]
[Q - As Mary E. Clark informs us, doesn't Basic Human Needs have a western
slant to it? Asian cultures value group needs above individual needs. How
can you reconcile the two?]