CONF 720: PEACE STUDIES
Professor Ho-Won Jeong
George Mason University
Institute for Conflict Analysis and Resolution
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Class Notes/Discussions
CONF 702 Midterm
Dr. Howon Jeong December 12, 2004
George Oliver
Midterm - Review of 10 Concepts in CONF 702
1. Peace Studies - Peace Research.
Many colleges and universities are attracted to courses on peace studies and
research in peace related fields. Why is this happening? There has not been
a growth in conflicts around the world, but with global media coverage, there
certainly is a growth in awareness on violent conflict. Peace studies and peace
research are done to promote the absence of violence. A peaceful world is a
world in which all walks of life can live together in harmony, and find peaceful
means for resolving disputes. (Jeong, 2000)
Peace studies and peace research has emerged in the last decade in order to
find peaceful means to end violence. The world is not much different today than
it was hundreds of years ago. Many philosophers and scholars have searched for
peaceful means to resolve man's conflicts. Concepts such as positive peace and
negative peace have emerged. Negative peace is the absence of violence. Concepts
like collective security are arrangements where large militaries stare each
other down. Each intimidating the other is a concept of negative peace. Peacekeeping
operations are another form of negative peace. Positive peace has a deeper meaning.
Positive peace requires a change in social norms. Factors toward positive peace
include equal opportunities for all people, quality of life, freedoms, social
equality, economic equity, solidarity, and open participation in governance.
(Jeong, 2000). Positive peace is a new way of thinking.
Before peace studies and peace research, scholars focused on some of the same
issues, but they were more concerned with the causes of war and deadly conflict
and the arrangements between nations that either prevented or caused war. More
recently, studies have focused on analyzing conflict behavior and crisis management;
in essence, find ways to end violence and war. (Jeong, 2000)
The impact of globalization and the information revolution demand the all seek
positive peace, but the 'realpolitik' demonstrates that positive peace will
be difficult to achieve. Therefore studies and research in peace are necessary.
Understanding both war and peace is part of peace studies. Conflict became so
destructive in the 20th Century that man must find better ways of resolving
conflict than taking to arms. As the Dalai Lama said: "We should think
carefully about the reality of war. … War is neither glamorous nor attractive.
It is monstrous. Its very nature is one of tragedy and suffering." For
these reasons peace studies and peace research have grown in popularity over
the last decade.
2. Conflict Resolution.
Conflict analysis and resolution are the outgrowth of peace studies. Analysis
of conflicts provides practitioners the tools to find resolution to conflict.
Conflict is inevitable. People can not exist in the same space and not experience
some kind of dispute or conflict. Legitimate structures and policies provide
mechanisms to resolve disputes. The absence of these legitimate structures can
be the source of conflict. (Jeong, 2000)
Chadwick Alger in an excellent article outlined some of the tools for conflict
resolution. Drawing back to the concept of peace studies, he outlined tools
for both negative peace and positive peace. The tools include: diplomacy, balance
of power, collective security, peace settlements, disarmament and arms control,
functionalism, self determination, human rights, peacekeeping, economic development,
economic equity, communications equity, ecological balance, governance of commons,
humanitarian intervention, preventive diplomacy, second track diplomacy, conversion,
non violence, citizen defense, self reliance, feminist perspectives and peace
education. These tools are not an exhaustive list, but demonstrate the depth
of analysis on conflict resolution. Only two of these tools were inherited from
previous centuries, the rest were developed in this past century.
Conflict resolution can be defined as "the de-escalation or deduction of
a conflict situation toward a more compatible or peaceful behavior." (Conteh-Morgan,
2004) Another term introduced was conflict transformation. Raimo Väyrynen
in an article says that conflict is inevitable. Conflict resolution claims to
believe that disagreements between parties can be resolved by first determining
the problem and then applying a tool to the problem. Väyrynen goes on to
say the conflict is complex and conflict resolution theories are too simple.
He argues that conflicts need to transform. Conflict transformation calls for
the creation of cooperative and just societies.
3. Peacekeeping.
Peacekeeping is just one of the tools of conflict resolution. The term stems
from a concept developed by the United Nations whereby unarmed or lightly armed
military units are sent to monitor a peace agreement or cease fire. In reality
the concept is synonymous with the UN, but emerged much earlier. Peacekeeping
concepts were used by the League of Nations, and other nations to find peaceful
means to resolve international conflict.
Peacekeeping has been built on the principals of consent, impartiality, and
minimum use of force. The parties to the dispute give consent for the presence
of third party military units. Impartiality is the approach taken by peacekeepers.
They try not to become embroiled in the conflict. The term evolved from a neutrality
to impartiality when, in practice, it became apparent that not every person
in the conflict provided consent, only the legitimate authority. Minimum use
of military force has been one of the bedrock principals of peacekeeping.
Peacekeeping missions are more often authorized by the United Nations Security
Council, but in recent years, other international organization have also approved
peacekeeping missions. (Jeong, 2000) The term has caused some confusion because
in a traditional sense, peacekeeping follows the principals listed above. In
practice, however, other uses of military forces such as peace enforcement and
humanitarian intervention have blurred the definition of peacekeeping. Peace
enforcement is the use of military force without the consent of the governing
party, and humanitarian intervention is the use of military force to provide
security for the delivery of humanitarian assistance by appropriate agencies.
Also in humanitarian interventions, consent is not a necessary requirement.
Often, all of these missions are lumped into the single term, peacekeeping.
For the last 10-15 years peacekeeping, and its related concepts of peace enforcement
and humanitarian intervention, have been used in increasing numbers to help
resolve international conflict. Unfortunately only recently have peacekeepers
been deployed to resolve the underlying causes of the conflict. In this light,
peacekeeping missions have become more complex, attempting to resolve some the
underlying roots of the conflict.
4. Peace building.
Peace building, like peacekeeping, is a misunderstood and misused term. Some
practitioners refer to nation building, while others use the term post conflict
reconstruction. The term peace building is a more comprehensive term and is
aimed at resolving the underlying causes of the conflict, whether that is economic
disparity, ethnic and/or religious tensions, or more effective forms of governance.
Peace building is a term that emerged from Boutros Boutros Ghali's Agenda for
Peace of 1992. It entails a wide range of functions that included cease fires,
demobilization, refugee resettlement, economic recovery, and promotion of freedoms
in a democratic society. It has both a short term and long term focus. (Jeong,
2004)
The concept of peacebuilding has emerged in the last decade, stemming from its
introduction by the UN Secretary General to experience drawn from a number of
international operations. Only in the last six to seven years have peace building
efforts attempted to resolve the root causes of conflict. The international
community is still struggling with this concept (Jeong, 2004), but the necessity
for further research is paramount.
John Paul Lederach in his book, Building Peace: Sustainable Reconciliation in
Divided Societies, describes a holistic approach to peace building. He sees
peace building programs at multiple levels, from the most senior national leadership
to the mid range leaders to grass roots organizations. Lederach also calls for
a comprehensive plan that synchronizes or at least organizes programs in an
integrated strategy to resolve the root causes of the conflict. Success has
not been achieved in practical application, so more research and analysis needs
to be done in the realm of peace building. The concept in theory is sound, but
difficult in practice.
5. Human Rights.
The modern concept of Human Rights stems from the Universal Declaration of Human
Rights which was passed in 1948, but the concept has undergone various forms
of focus. In the Declaration, human rights are laid out in detail, but stem
from the first article that says: "All human beings are born free and equal
in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should
act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood." (Universal Declaration
of Human Rights, 1948)
According to Howon Jeong, there are three generations of focus for human rights.
The first generation focused on civil and political rights. It was negative
in aspect in that it promoted non-interference with the private life of citizens.
The basic premise is that "all men are borne and remain free and equal
in their rights." (Jeong, 200) The second generation had a positive spin.
Rights are inherent in the economic and social well being of man. In this generation
of human rights concepts labor laws, access to land, and economic prosperity
were introduced. The third generation focused on collective rights of certain
groups of people. It was a more holistic approach, and this led to the development
of the Declaration of Human Rights following World War II. Following this Declaration,
there were two more human rights covenants developed in 1966.
In post modern times, international organizations, states, and non governmental
organizations have roles to play in protecting human rights. Human rights have
been expanded to include equal opportunity based on gender, race, religion,
and ethnicity. It also encompasses the concerns of the oppressed and the exploited.
(Jeong, 2000)
6. Non-violence.
Nonviolence is a term that connotes non resistance and passive resistance. It
is more than that. Its aim is to bring about change through non violent means.
According to Howon Jeong (2000) it is "not victory over the other side
but mutual gain through realizing an intrinsically good end." Non violence
is non military and decentralized. It can be considered revolutionary in that
it calls for change within structures. It is based on the principal the violence
breads violence.
Non violent methods have been around for centuries. Religion and political ideologies
have used non violent techniques to bring about change. Quakers, Mennonites,
and other Christian religious sects advocated such beliefs. Leo Tolstoy opposed
organized violence in state sponsored wars and the economic repression that
stemmed from acts by governmental institutions. Mahatma Gandhi in his campaign
in the 1920s, 30s, and 40s used non violence effectively to gain independence
for India from the United Kingdom.
Non violent mechanisms include demonstrations, work stoppages; sit ins, boycotts,
picketing, strikes, refusal to pay taxes, and mass arrests. The only limiting
factor in non violent means is one's imagination. Central for success in non
violent actions is the discipline not resort to violence means. The consequences
of addressing issues such as power and control through non violent means can
be severe. Those practicing non violent means to overcome hardships by a governing
body must be prepared for not only violent responses, but also a long term struggle.
Change through non violent means does not come about quickly.
7. Feminine Concepts.
In this course on peace studies, I have been exposed to many concepts and none
were new to me, except the impact of feminine concepts in peace studies. I had
always looked at feminist movements as an effort to gain equal rights and freedoms
between the genders. I had not considered the impact of a feminine approach
to peace. The biological and social aspects of feminism have brought much to
the field of conflict analysis and resolution.
Feminine values of caring, compassion and nurturing have clearly made an impact
on peace research and practice. The current world order is a patriarchal system
that stresses violent means for change. Feminists' values, particularly caring
and compassion, have led to new views toward resolving conflict. (Jeong, 2000)
Such tools as non violence, negotiation, problem solving workshops all stem
from a more feminine approach to conflict resolution.
In the security area, which for centuries has been a masculine approach to national
security; feminist approaches have broadened the concept of security. Such notions
as personal security and human security have been added to national security
strategies. A feminist view of world security is more encompassing and includes
people of all nations based on a notion of an extended family.
8. Macro Theories to Violence.
Macro theories of violence are theories that focus on the collective aspects
of violence versus the micro theories that focus on the individual. Macro theories
have been around for generations. Macro theories stem from studies surrounding
the study of warfare. Concepts like the balance of power or collective security
were developed in the Westphalian era of analyzing war. Wars have been around
for millennia, and understanding war has been a key component of macro theories
of collective violence.
War is an organized method of causing change through violent means. It is a
human institution, but the consequences of war have caused much suffering. As
the tools of war have matured, so too have its devastation and destruction.
Theories, such as the just war theory, try to demonstrate that war has its place,
and when properly conceived and executed, it is right and just. Others, like
Carl von Clausewitz see war as an extension of policy. Still others see collective
security arrangements as a method to deter war, but should war break out, can
these arrangement assure survival if not victory?
Earl Conteh-Morgan provides an excellent overview of the causes and results
of collective violence. In his book he describes the types of conflicts stemming
from a Westphalian view of the world. He goes on to explain other theories of
collective violence. One such theory, functionalism, outlines the inter relation
between structure and function. A society must be in good working order, whereby
the structure takes care of the individual. When that structure fails, then
change is necessary. Disequilibrium often leads to violence. (Conteh-Morgan,
2004)
Stemming from work by Karl Marx, mass society theory predicts revolution, particularly
violent revolution, when people are not in consonance with social institutions.
When people can not affect change, violence springs from the socially discontented.
(Conteh-Morgan, 2004)
Thus macro theories of conflict or political violence attempt to explain why
situations turn violence from a group or societal perspective. By understanding
the theoretical foundations for political violence, then through conflict analysis,
possible routes to resolution can be found.
9. Micro Theories to Violence.
Micro theories of violence, as opposed to macro theories of violence, focus
on theories that cause individuals to resort to violence in solving their problems.
As so many theorists and scholars have found, it is hard to disassociate the
person from his society. Understanding the foundations of what causes the individual
to resort to violent acts provides a rich body of knowledge and insight into
conflict resolution.
Are human inherently violent or is violence socially constructed is a question
that has stimulated some interesting concepts. The primordialists would say
that the human being is instinctually violent. Their notion stems from the animal
instincts that humans possess. Others, such as structurationists, say violence
in human beings is a learned trait stemming from ancient and sometimes post
modern methods of dealing with conflict.
Dollard et al developed the frustration - aggression theory in the late 1930s.
His premise was that excessive frustration led to violent acts by individuals.
Failure to attain personal goals because of various obstacles led to frustration.
The more obstacles a person encounters, the greater the level of frustration.
Violence is the direct result of this frustration. Ted Gurr took the frustration-aggression
theory one step further in his relative deprivation theory. Although Gurr's
work addressed collective violence, his basic premise was that when a person's
expectations (what he hopes to attain) diverges from what he has, then this
represents a deprivation. The greater the deprivation, the greater the likelihood
the individual will resort to violence to attain is goals. (Jeong, 2000)
John Burton, focused his micro theory on human needs. Using the work of Maslow,
Burton developed a series of needs required for human development. Failure to
obtain these needs, whether they are biological or social, is the basic motivational
factor that leads to human aggression. (Jeong, 2000)
Others theorists and scholars have focused on identity formation. Identity can
be a huge source of conflict, especially in modern day conflicts. Conteh-Morgan's
chapter, "Interethnic or Identity Sources of Violent Conflict," provides
a student of conflict analysis a good basis of discussion. Ethnonationalism
takes two views, one primordial and the other instrumental or constructivism.
The stronger theory on ethnonationalism is that violence is a rational choice,
but influenced by both culture and ethnicity. Ethnic, religious, or even group
identities are formed early in life and can be stimulated by leaders. Vamik
Volkan's work, Bloodlines, is based on identity theories and ethnic violence.
10. Environmental Conflict.
Another new eye opening concept of conflict for me, personally, were issues
surrounding environmental conflict. In this age of globalization, environmental
conflict is gaining strength and interest. Global warming, depletion of the
ozone layer, fishing rights, conservation, and a whole host of other issues
are causing great concern and leading to conflict among people and nations.
The environment should be considered a major security concern. The impact of
environmental issues has grown considerably over the last 100 years, and if
something is not done to protect the world's resources, conflict is inevitable.
(Jeong and Käkönen)
The goal of this field of research, study, and political action requires the
concerned efforts of many peoples across the globe. The first step is gaining
wide spread consensus. Recent conferences and treaties are raising awareness,
but not fast enough. The United States's failure to support the Kyoto Treaty
is a major step in the wrong direction. International politics is a complicated
and inefficient process, but it is through such politics that solutions must
be found if the humanity is to avoid conflict based on environmental issues.
Unfortunately, security is more linked to tradition concerns of interstate and
intrastate violence. International and national security must take more notice
of environmental issues. Failure to do so with a growing world population will
eventually lead to intense and probably violent conflict. If action is taken
now, then maybe environmental disasters can be averted.
Notions like Global Commons are good ideas that need to be expanded. To be effective
international organizations, regional organizations, nation states, and even
non governmental organizations need to come together to protect the world's
precious and scarce resources.
Bibliography
Alger, Chadwick. "The Expanding Tool Chest for Peacemakers." CONF
702 handout.
Conteh-Morgan, Earl. Collective Political Violence: An Introduction to the Theories and Cases of Violent Conflict. New York: Routledge, 2004.
Dalai Lama, "The Global Community and the Need for Universal Responsibility." Class handout in CONF 702.
Lederach, John Paul, Building Peace: Sustainable Reconciliation in Divided Societies. Washington DC: United States Institute of Peace publication, 1998.
Jeong, Howon, Peace and Conflict Studies: An Introduction. Burlington, Vermont: Asgate, 2000.
_________. "Issues and Approaches," Peacebuilding in Postconflict Societies: Strategy and Process, author's draft, class handout.
________ and Jyrki Käkönen, "Linking Conflict Environmental Security, class handout.
Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948.