CONF 702: PEACE STUDIES

Professor Ho-Won Jeong
George Mason University
Institute for Conflict Analysis and Resolution
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Deforestation

The Ecological Importance of Forests
Forests act like giant sponges, slowing down runoff and holding water that recharges springs, streams, and groundwater. Thus, they regulate the flow of water from mountain highlands to croplands and urban areas, and they reduce the amount of sediment washing into streams, lakes, and reservoirs by reducing soil erosion (Miller 2000:145). Forests also influence climate. For example, 50-80% of the moisture in the air above tropical forests comes from trees via transpiration and evaporation. If large areas of these forests are cleared, average annual precipitation drops and the region's climate gets hotter and drier; then soils become depleted of already-scarce nutrients, and they are baked and washed away. This process can eventually convert a diverse tropical forest into a sparse grassland or even a desert (Miller 2000:145). Forests are also vital to the global carbon cycle. They provide habitats for more wildlife species than any other biome, making them the planet's major reservoir of biodiversity. They also buffer us against noise, and absorb air pollutants. The ecological benefits of our complex and diverse forests are undervalued in the marketplace. Until this changes, we will continue to sacrifice these forests and their long-term ecological services for short-term gain.

Deforestation
Recent reports by the World Resources Institute have shown that more than 80% of the world's natural forests have already been destroyed (Hui 1997:2). Over the last 30 years, 40 percent of rainforests have disappeared and the rate of deforestation is increasing (Elliot 1998:81). In 1980, about 113 000 square kilometers of tropical forest was cleared. By 1990 annual clearance was 169 000 square kilometers (Elliot 1998:81). A study in the Economist reports that the rate of forest clearance in Asia has roughly trebled since the early 1960s. In 1950, Ethiopia was 30 percent forested, but by the late 1980s that figure was down to 4 percent. In 1961, over half of Thailand (53 percent) was covered in forest: by 1986, the figure was 29 percent (Elliot 1998:81). Between 1980 and 1995 alone, at least 200,000 hectares of forest (more than 500,000,000 acres) were lost globally- an area larger than Mexico (Abromovitz and Mattoon 1999:48).

The pattern of deforestation is also changing. Brazil, Indonesia and Zaire comprise about 50% of tropical timber deforestation with another seven- Burma, Columbia, India, Malaysia, Mexico, Nigeria, and Thailand- adding another quarter to the total (Elliot 1998:81). The rate of deforestation is now on the decrease in Brazil, but on the increase in the Philippines and Vietnam. Deforestation has also decreased in Thailand since a Royal decree placed restrictions on logging in that country, but logging activity- often illegal-has been displaced into Burma (Elliot 1998:81).

The causes of deforestation are varied and patterns of forest use and forest destruction will also vary from region to region. One of the primary causes of deforestation is the conversion of forest land to agricultural land, both for large-scale agriculture (including ranching and cash cropping) and for subsistence agriculture. "Large-scale conversion is often related in the first instance to the production of elite wealth, which has in the past often been supported by fiscal incentives"(Elliot 1998:82). In Brazil, for example, ranching attracted subsidies and zero tax rates on income, thus making land conversion, often without subsequent use, an attractive financial proposition. The policy was abolished in 1989 but cattle ranching accounted for 38% of all deforestation in Amazonia in the years between 1960 and 1976 (Elliot 1998:82). Forest land has often been cleared in support of mono-cropping, frequently for the production not of food stuffs for local consumption, but for export in the service of debt. Land cleared in Thailand, for example, has been used to grow cassava for feedstock in the E.C., and soybeans grown on once-forested land in Amazonia are destined for overseas markets rather than to feed local population. Land clearance and forest loss also arises from internal colonization initiatives, the two best known of which are Indonesian Transmigration Scheme, which was funded partly by the World Bank, and the Brazilian Polonoroeste Program (Elliot 1998:82).
Commercial logging- both legal and illegal- is another source of deforestation although there are regional differences in the extent of that contribution. Porter and Brown (1991) suggest that logging is responsible for about 20 to 25 percent of annual forest loss. The World Rainforest Movement suggests a lower figure, in the vicinity of 10 percent, but notes that logging is the major cause of primary rainforest destruction in South-East Asia and Africa. This has been accompanied by an increase in what Colchester calls 'South-South colonialism'- where the foreign companies which are awarded logging concessions in tropical regions are not Northern-based companies, but companies from the Newly Industrialized Countries (NICs) of Malaysia and South Korea (Elliot 1998:83).

In Industrial countries, where most of the world's commercial wood is produced, timber harvest is the primary cause of forest degradation. In developing nations, land clearing for agriculture and grazing combine with timber harvesting to reduce forest area (Abromovitz and Mattoon 1999:48). Driving the timber harvest is growing demand for wood products. In the last three decades alone, use of industrial roundwood (timber used without being squared by sawing or hewing) has risen by almost one-third; paper consumption has nearly tripled; and fuelwood and charcoal consumption have grown by almost two-thirds. As the world's most populous nations become more affluent, demand is likely to continue spiraling upward (Abromovitz and Mattoon 1999:48).

Little of the wood on the market today comes from sustainably managed forests. Although a substantial share of wood still originates in primary forests, more now comes from secondary stands (those that have been harvested and regrown), mainly in the US and Europe. Even though tree plantations are increasing in area, sometimes at the expense of natural forests, just 10% of today's industrial wood comes from tree farms (Abromovitz and Mattoon 1999:49). Worldwide, about 55% of the wood cut today is used directly for fuel, while the rest primarily goes into industrial products such as lumber and paper.

Fuelwood demand is another cause of deforestation although its contributions may have been overstated in past research studies. In many developing countries, fuelwood is still a major source of energy. Even in an oil-rich country like Nigeria, 82 percent of energy demands in the 1980s were met by fuelwood (Elliot 1998:83). However, having said this, in rural communities in developing countries, much of the fuelwood that is collected for domestic use- primarily by women- rarely involves the destruction of large stands of trees. Rather, firewood collection primarily affects open forests and fallow land rather than closed forests (Elliot 1998:83)
Almost half of the world's fuelwood is produced in five countries- India, China, Brazil, Indonesia, and Nigeria. Five nations produce more than 45% of the world's industrial wood harvest. The US, Canada, and Russia have remained among the top five producers for at least 40 years, while China and Brazil joined this group in the 1970s. Together, the top 10 (which includes Sweden, Finland, Malaysia, Germany, and Indonesia) account for more than 71% of industrial production (Abromovitz and Mattoon 1999:49). More and more wood products enter the international market every year, reflecting a general trend toward trade globalization. The effort to expand production and trade has come at a high cost to many nations that are cutting their forests at unsustainable levels. The Philippines provides a cautionary example of the consequences of this. In the 1960s and 1970s, the Philippines became one of the top four timber exporters in the world by liquidating 90% of its forests. Since then, the nation has turned into an importer, and 18,000,000 forest dwellers have become impoverished (Abromovitz and Mattoon 1999:50).

Since 1961, Canada has more than tripled production; Brazil and Malaysia expanded output more than fivefold; and Indonesia increased output sevenfold. These nations continue to cut their forests at unsustainable rates. Not coincidentally, Indonesia, Brazil, and Malaysia together accounted for 53% of the world's forest loss during the 1980s (Abromovitz and Mattoon 1999:50). A disproportionate share of the world's industrial wood is grown and used in industrial nations. Although developing countries have raised their and share of consumption in recent decades, these are still well below the levels of industrial nations. Indeed, consumption per person in industrial nations is 12 times higher than in developing ones. Fuelwood is the only wood product that developing countries use more of (Abromovitz and Mattoon 1999:50).

If current trends continue, according to the UN's Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), paper consumption will increase by 49% by 2010; fuelwood consumption will rise by 18%; and overall wood consumption will grow by 20% (Abromovitz and Mattoon 1999:51). Industrial nations are expected to continue their already disproportionately high levels of consumption and developing nations to increase their demand. Some analysts have predicted that in some major timber-producing nations such as the US, growth in consumption may outstrip the production capacity of domestic timberlands in the next decade, and they will begin cutting down their forests faster than they can be replaced (Abromovitz and Mattoon 1999:51).

Forests store large amounts of carbon that are released when trees are cut or burned. The current annual rate of carbon being released into the atmosphere due to worldwide deforestation is approximately 1.6 billion metric tons per year. In comparison, fossil fuel burning releases about 6 billion metric tons per year, so it is clear that deforestation makes a significant contribution to the increasing CO2 in the atmosphere, and is enhancing the greenhouse effect (Urquhart et al.2002:4). It is projected that deforestation and the burning of biomass will be responsible for fifteen percent of the greenhouse effect between 1990 and 2025 (Hui 1997:2). The ranges of tree species could shift with respect to altitude and latitude as a result of global warming. Furthermore, the stress of such environmental change may make some species more susceptible to the effects of insects, pollution, disease and fire. In addition, genetic diversity may decrease (Hui 1997:2). The clearing of forest land results in increased in increased erosion and landslides. Soil from areas reduced forest cover can fill reservoirs created by dams. Logging has directly and indirectly damaged spawning grounds, blocked river channels, raised water temperatures and caused water levels in streams to fluctuate dangerously. Therefore, the removal of trees can reduce the viability of fish stocks in their watershed and downstream environments (Hui 1997:2).

Harvesting the Trees
Roads must be built for access and removal of timber. Even with careful design, logging roads have a number of harmful impacts. They cause erosion and increase sedimentation of waterways and cause severe habitat fragmentation and loss of biodiversity. They can expose forests to invasion by exotic pests, diseases, and introduced wildlife species. They can also open up once-inaccessible forests to farmers, miners, ranchers, hunters, and off-road vehicle users. In addition, logging roads on US public lands disqualify the land for protection as wilderness (Miller 2000:146).

Tropical Deforestation
Tropical forests cover about 6% of the earth's land area. Virtually all of the tropical forests are located in developing countries. Climatic and biological data suggest that mature tropical forests once covered at least twice as much area as they do today, with most of the destruction occurring since 1950 (Miller 2000:153). The lowest estimated rate of loss and degradation of remaining tropical forests is 62,000 square kilometers (24,000 square miles) per year. This is equivalent to a loss and degradation of 14 city blocks of tropical forest per minute (Miller 2000:153). The highest estimated rate of destruction and degradation is 308,000 square kilometers (118,000 square miles) per year- equivalent to a loss and degradation of 68 city blocks of tropical forest per minute. Scientists estimate that this annual rate of destruction and degradation could well double within another decade (Miller 2000:153). If the current rate of deforestation continues, the world's rain forests will vanish within 100 years-causing unknown effects on global climate and eliminating the majority of plant and animal species on the planet (Urquhart et al. 2002:1). In the tropical forests of world, the clearing of the land for agriculture and livestock are the primary activities resulting in deforestation (Hui 1997:3).

The FAO estimates that 53,000 square miles of tropical forests were destroyed each year during the 1980s. Of this, they estimate that 21,000 square miles were deforested annually in South America, most of this in the Amazon Basin. Based on these estimates, an area of tropical forest large enough to cover North Carolina is deforested each year (Urqhart et al. 2002:3). Recent research results showed that in the Brazilian Amazon, the rate of deforestation was around 6200 square miles per year from 1978-1986, but fell to 4800 square miles per year from 1986-1993. By 1988, 6% of the Brazilian Amazon had been cut down (90,000 square miles, an area the size of New England). However, due to the isolation of fragments and the increase in forest/clearing boundaries, a total of 16.5% of the forest (230,000 square miles, an area nearly the size of Texas) was affected by deforestation (Urquhart et al.2002:4).

Tropical forests are home to 50-90% of the earth's terrestrial species, most of them still unknown and unnamed. Up to 137 species disappear worldwide each day due to tropical deforestation (Urquhart et al.2002:5). Biologist Edward O. Wilson estimates that by 2022 at least 20% of tropical forest species could be gone, and as many as 50% by 2042, if current rates of tropical deforestation and degradation continue. If these estimates are correct, no extinction of this size has occurred for 65 million years (Miller 2000:154). The active ingredients for 25% of the world's prescription drugs are derived from plants, most of which grow in tropical rain forests. Of the 3,000 plants identified by the National Cancer Institute (NCI) as sources of cancer-fighting chemicals, 70% come from tropical forests (Miller 2000:154).
Tropical deforestation results from a number of interconnected causes, all of which are related to population growth, poverty, and certain government policies that encourage deforestation. Population growth and poverty combine to drive subsistence farmers and the landless poor to tropical forests, where they try to grow enough food to survive (Miller 2000:154).

A competitive global economy drives the need for money in economically challenged tropical countries. At the national level, governments sell logging concessions to raise money for projects, to pay international debt, or to develop industry. For example, Brazil had an international debt of $159 billion in 1995, on which it must make payments each year (Urquhart et al. 2002:2).

Government subsidies can accelerate deforestation by making timber or other resources cheap relative to their full ecological value and by encouraging the poor to colonize tropical forests by giving them title to land they clear (as is done in Brazil, Indonesia, and Mexico). International lending agencies encourage developing countries to borrow huge sums of money from developed countries to finance projects such as roads, mines, logging operations, oil drilling, and dams in tropical forests (Miller 2000:154). To stimulate economic development (and in some cases to pay the interest on loans from developed countries), these countries often sell off some of their timber and other natural resources, mostly to developed countries.

As forests become opened up by roads, logging, agricultural plots, and cattle ranches, they become drier and more susceptible to fires. This phenomenon became apparent when huge areas of forests burned in Indonesia, Brazil, Guatemala, Nicaragua, and Mexico in 1997 and 1998. Most of these fires were caused by farmers using fire to prepare fields for planting or cattle-grazing. Tens of millions of people were sickened by the highly polluted air and hundreds died; the resulting damage and loss of timber from the fires amounted to billions of dollars. In coming years more fires are expected in Latin America, Africa, and Asia, destroying large areas of forest, reducing biodiversity and ecological integrity, and adding to greenhouse gases. Some conservationists warn that mostly because of human actions coupled with prolonged droughts (also made more likely by large-scale land clearing) we may be entering an age of fire (Miller 2000:156).
Commercial logging also degrades tropical forests. Loggers typically take only the best large and medium trees, but they also topple up to 17 other trees for each one they remove. The falling trees damage many others, with up to 70% of them eventually dying from their injuries (Miller 2000:157). A study in Indonesia found that when only 3% of the trees were cut, a logging operation damaged 49% of the trees in the forest (Urquhart et al. 2002:7). Logging is directly responsible for only a small portion of tropical deforestation and degradation when compared to small-scale agriculture. However, the construction of logging and other resource access roads opens up these forests to small-scale farmers, ranchers, and miners (Miller 2000:157).
Globalization and the World Market

Global integration of markets is opening up native forests to industrial exploitation at an unprecedented rate. Hard-won legal protections around the world are being killed off fast. Governments today are actively stimulating greater demand for wood products and further increasing their already generous subsidies to logging companies (Menotti 1999:180). "One of the major driving forces behind globalization is the removal of government restrictions on foreign investment, providing new access to resources previously unexploited by industry"(Menotti 1999:180). To expand their control over the world's wood fibre supply, US logging companies have placed at the top of their priority list the restructuring of other nation's investments. For example, in biodiversity-rich Mexico, the adoption of World Trade Organization (WTO) and North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) investment rules drew massive investment into its forestry sector. Fifteen US companies relocated south of the border within eighteen months of NAFTA's implementation. Now, to establish similar investment rules globally, the industry is preparing to introduce an expanded investment agenda through the WTO (Menotti 1999:180).

The need to be competitive has led governments everywhere to abandon forest protection laws and regulations. The United States suspended in 1995 all laws applicable to the logging of billions of board-feet of federal timber, and has institutionalized major exemptions from the Endangered Species Acts for corporate landowners. Likewise, following pressure from the logging industry, Canada in its attempt to remain internationally competitive, has failed to establish an Endangered Species Act, and its most-forested province, British Columbia, has gutted its weak Forest Practices Code of 1995- just two years after creating it (Menotti 1999:180). It is estimated that one acre of Canadian forest was logged every 12.9 seconds in 1995 (Hui 1997:2). Mexico's 1997 Forest Reform Law authorised the Environment Secretariat to waive protections for soil, water and biodiversity. In Brazil, constitutional protections for indigenous lands have been weakened by President Cardoso, allowing private interests to displace native people from the vast forests of demarcated areas. Together with his current push to reduce the maximum area which landowners in the Amazon cannot exploit (from 80 percent to 50) Cardoso may be opening up the largest expanse of native forest in the world (Menotti 1999:181).
Another pillar of globalization is 'competitive subsidization' where governments provide industry with more and more handouts, to enhance their competitiveness in the global marketplace. "For the industries destroying forests, transport infrastructure and below-market costs for natural resources are vital forms of government support"(Menotti 1999:181). Below-market prices for timber from public lands, particularly in the US and Canada, are being handed out more generously in response to stiffening global competition. Although Canada's largest forest-exporting province, British Columbia, has for years sold public timber at one-third the price of the cost in the US, B.C.'s Premier recently cut it by another 12 percent in the name of boosting competitiveness (Menotti 1999:181). The systematic removal of trade barriers (both tariff and non-tariff) is also aggravating pressure on forests.

The Effects on Indigenous Populations
Deforestation results also in a loss of habitat and identity for indigenous forest dwellers through loss of land, and sometimes, forcible removal and resettlement. Approximately 50 million indigenous peoples rely on forests not only for food, fodder, building materials and medicines, but also for cultural and spiritual identity (Elliot 1998:84). The most well-publicized cases of destruction of indigenous forest habitats have been those of the Penan in Sarawak and the Yanomami Indians in the Brazilian Amazon- but the pattern is repeated in a number of other countries (Elliot 1998:84). Tribal communities lack the political and economic influence necessary to fight the system imposed on them. However, there are local grassroots groups forming and are struggling to save the forests (Jeong 2000:285).

References

Abromovitz, Janet and Ashley T. Mattoon. 1999. The Ongoing Threat to the World's Forests. USA Today. Sept. v.128 i2652 p48

Elliot, Lorraine. 1998. The Global Politics of the Environment. New York: New York University Press.

Hui, Stephen. 1997. Deforestation: Humankind and the Global Ecological Crisis. Aqua Pulse.
http://www.aquapulse.net/knowledge/deforestation.html

Jeong, Ho-Won. 2000. Peace and Conflict Studies. Aldershot, England: Ashgate.

Menotti, Victor. 1999. Forest Destruction and Globalization. The Ecologist. May-June, v29 i3 p180

Miller, G. Tyler, Jr.2000. Sustaining the Earth. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole Publishing Company. Fourth ed.

Urquhart, Gerald et al. 2002 Tropical Deforestation. Earth Observatory, NASA.
http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/texis/webinator/printall?/Library/Deforestation/